Buddhism Religion

Young Buddhist monks at a temple in Bagan, Burma. Photo © Sara Heinrichs.

"One thing I teach: suffering and the end of suffering. It is just ill and the ceasing of ill that I proclaim." -- The Buddha

Founded in India 2,500 years ago, Buddhism remains the dominant religion of the Far East and is increasingly popular in the West. Over its long history Buddhist has developed into a wide variety of forms, ranging from an emphasis on religious rituals and worship of deities to a complete rejection of both rituals and deities in favor of pure meditation. But all share in common a great respect for the teachings of the Buddha, "The Enlightened One." Learn more about Buddhism by selecting a topic below.

Buddhism Basics Get to know Buddhism with our one-page introduction to its history, beliefs, practices and sects. Buddhist Beliefs What are the basic beliefs of Buddhism? Is Buddhism really atheistic? What do Buddhists believe about the afterlife? Get your answers here. Buddhism Bookstore Learn more about Buddhism with books in several categories hand-selected by ReligionFacts. Buddhist Deities Profiles and images of spiritual beings in Buddhism, including buddhas such as the Laughing Buddha, bodhisattvas like Kuan Yin, wrathful deities and more. Buddhism Fast Facts A handy table of facts about Buddhism: adherents, locations, important dates, Four Noble Truths, etc. Buddhism Features Feature articles on Buddhism and contemporary life, provided by the University of Chicago's Department of Religion. Buddhism Glossary Know your dharma from your karma, your anicca from your dependent arising, and many other Buddhist terms and concepts. Buddhist History Guide to the early history of Buddhism, from the life of the Buddha and formation of the Sangha to its interaction with the Hellenistic world.

Buddhist News The latest Buddhist news from around the world, provided by the Buddhist Channel. Buddhist Practices Introductions to Buddhist rituals such as mantras and meditation. Buddhist Sacred Texts Learn about Buddhist sacred texts such as the Tripitaka, Mahayana Sutras, and the Tibetan Book of the Dead. Includes links to online English translations. Buddhist Sects and Schools Get to know the differences between the many different sects of Buddhism, from Engaged Buddhism to Zen. Includes a comparison chart. Buddhist Symbols An extensive and fully illustrated guide to Buddhist symbols such as the lotus, wheel, Buddha eyes, Zen circle, hand gestures, colors, and many more. Buddhism Store A convenient starting place to shop online for Buddha statues, Buddhist meditation cushions, Buddhist symbolic jewelry and more. Buddhist Things An illustrated guide to Buddhist ritual objects, from the begging bowl and Buddha images to mala beads and the prayer wheel. Includes links for buying your own. Buddhism Timeline A detailed chronology of important events in the history of Buddhism.

References

Quote from F.L. Woodward, Some Sayings of the Buddha, 283.

Bon Religion

Bön was the indigenous religion of Tibet before the arrival of Buddhism in the 7th century AD. Today, Bön is similar to Tibetan Buddhism. It is a matter of controversy whether Bön influenced Tibetan Buddhism or the other way around. Bön is spelled either Bön or Bon, and is sometimes called Bonism. Followers of Bön are known as Bönpo or Bon-po.

Fast Facts

• Date founded: none (Original Bön); 16,000 BC (Yungdrung Bön, according to the Bönpo); 14th cent. AD (New Bön)
• Place founded: Tibet
• Founder: none (Original Bön); Tonpa Shenrab Miwoche (Yungdrung Bön)
• Adherents: unknown, perhaps around 100,000

History

His Holiness Menri Trizin, the spiritual leader of Bon, conducts a ceremony at the Menri Monastery (photo © The Bon Foundation).

Both scholars and the Bönpo themselves distinguish between original Bön and modern Bön. "Original Bön" refers to the indigenous religion of Tibet, which was animistic (believing that nature is pervaded by good and evil spirits) and shamanistic. The name was probably derived from the ritual recitation (Bön, meaning "invocation") of its practitioners. 1

The exact nature of original Bön is difficult to determine, since all early descriptions of it are from the Buddhist perspective and intended to discredit it. After the first diffusion of Buddhism into Tibet in the 7th century, Bön was persecuted under Buddhist rulers, but it survived and became more organized at the time of the second diffusion of Buddhism in the 11th century. 2

The Bönpo teach a second stage of Bön, which scholars generally dismiss, called Yungdrung Bön. This stage of Bön is said to have been founded by a Buddha-like figure named Shenrab Miwoche, who lived 18,000 years ago in a mythical land of Zhang Zhung near Tibet.

Like the Buddha, Shenrab renounced his life as a prince to become a monk, achieved enlightenment, and taught others how to attain it. He thus converted the people from animistic Bön to Yungdrung ("eternal") Bön. The claim, therefore, is that Bön incorporated Buddhist-like elements prior to and apart from the influence of Buddhism. 3

Alternatively, Tibetan Buddhist scholars have identified Shenrab with Lao-Tzu, making Bön a derivative of Taoism. Modern scholars have also suggested Shaivite (Hindu sect devoted to Shiva) influence from Kashmir in the development of Bön. 4

Bön as it is practiced now, known as "New Bön," is essentially a form of Tibetan Buddhism. It began in the 14th century when some Bön teachers began to adopt Tibetan Buddhist practices related to Padmasambhava. Although New Bön differs considerably from Yungdrun Bön, the practitioners of New Bön regard their religion as part of a continuous Bön tradition that includes the prior stages. According to the Oxford Dictionary of World Religions, however, "any connection between ancient and modern Bön is extremely tenuous." 5

It is commonly believed that Tibetan Buddhism was shaped by Bön, but the Oxford Dictionary refutes this as well. "Contrary to the popular misconception that Buddhism was significantly influenced by Bön when it entered Tibet, it is clear that what is known of Bön today is almost completely influenced by Mahayana Buddhism, which was itself transplanted from India into Tibet virtually unchanged." 6 The Dalai Lama, who is supportive of Bön, shares a similar persepctive: "In its beginning, I believe, it [Bön] was not such a fruitful religion, but when Buddhism began to flourish in Tibet, Bön also had an opportunity to enrich its own religious philosophy and meditational resources." 7

Today, Bön can be found in the more isolated parts of northern and western Tibet, as well as in exile at the Tashi Menri Ling Monastery in Dolanji in Himachal Pradesh, India. The current leader of Bön is His Holiness Lungtok Tenpai Nyima.

According to the Chinese census, about 10% of Tibetans (about 100,000 people) follow Bön. At the time of the communist takeover there were approximately 300 Bön monasteries in Tibet and western China. According to a recent survey, there are 264 active Bön monasteries, nunneries, and hermitages. 8

Beliefs

In its earlier forms Bön doctrine was a dualistic theism, teaching that the creation of the world was brought about by coexistent good and evil principles, but the philosophy of modern Bön is generally in accord with Buddhist non-theistic tenets. 9

However, Bön ritual includes worship, iconography, and meditation on peaceful and wrathful deities (as in Tibetan Buddhism). In addition to peaceful and wrathful deities, Bön distinguishes between "enlightened" deities and those who are still "of this world," or not fully enlightened. There are four principal peaceful deities, known as the Four Transcendent Lords. These are led by a goddess, Yum, "the Mother," followed by three male deities known as Lha, "the God," Sipa, "the Procreator," and Tönpa, "the Teacher." 10

The main Bön rituals center around the wrathful or tutelary deities (yidam), divided into Mother Tantras and Father Tantras. They are depicted with fierce expressions, many arms and legs wielding frightening weapons, and trampling enemies under their feet. As in Tibetan Buddhism, meditation on the wrathful deities is a means of understanding reality and attaining enlightenment. 11

Bön shares with the Nyingma schools of Buddhism the structure of the nine yanas (ways or vehicles), which climax in the meditation of "the great perfection." This Bönpos claim was transmitted first by Shenrab and only later entered the Nyingma tradition. 12 The Nine Ways of Bön are:

1. Way of Prediction (Phyva-gshen Theg-pa) - astrology, ritual and prognostication
2. Way of the Visual World (sNang-shen theg-pa) - explains the psychophysical universe
3. Way of Illusion ('Phrul-gshen theg-pa) - rites for dispersing adverse forces
4. Way of Existence (Srid-gshen theg-pa) - funeral and death rituals
5. Way of a Lay Follower (dGe-bsnyen theg-pa) - ten principles for wholesome activity
6. Way of a Monk (Drnag-srnng theg-pa) - monastic rules and regulations
7. Way of Primordial Sound (Adkar theg-pa) - integration of an exalted practitioner into the mandala of highest enlightenment
8. Way of Primordial Shen (Ye-gshen theg-pa) - seeking a true tantric master and the spiritual commitments that binds a disciple to his tantric master
9. Way of Supreme Doctrine (Bla-med theg-pa) - the doctrine of great perfection. 13

Practices

Bön practices are similar in many ways to those of Tibetan Buddhism, including the use of thangkas, mandalas, and meditation on various deities as means to enlightenment. The monastic life is heavily emphasized. As in original Bön, astrology and medicine remain important.

References & Sources

1. "Bön." John R. Hinnels, ed., The Penguin Dictionary of Religions, 2nd ed. (Penguin Books, 1997).
2. "Bön." John Bowker, ed., The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions (Oxford UP, 2000).
3. "Bön." Wikipedia (December 2005).
4. "Bon." John R. Hinnels, ed., The Penguin Dictionary of Religions, 2nd ed. (Penguin Books, 1997).
5. Oxford Dictionary.
6. Ibid.
7. Dalai Lama, My Land and My People (McGraw-Hill, 1962), p. 239.
8. Wikipedia.
9. Penguin Dictionary.
10. Per Kvaerne, The Bon Religion of Tibet: The Iconography of a Living Tradition (Shambhala, 2001), p. 24.
11. Ibid.
12. Penguin Dictionary.
13. "The Bönpo's Tradition." Official Website of the Government of Tibet in Exile.

Baha'i Faith Religion

The Baha'i ringstone symbol on the Shrine of the Bab in Haifa, Israel.
Photo © Bahá’í International Community.

"The earth is but one country, and mankind its citizens."
- Bahá'u'lláh

"The community eschews all forms of superstition, emphasizes the importance of an unfettered search for scientific and religious truth, and sets for its followers the goal of meeting the highest moral standards. World peace and the establishment of a united global commonwealth have been and remain distinguishing concerns."
- Bahai.org

Bahá'í Basics Fast Facts, Glossary , Bahá'í vs. Islam, Christianity & Judaism Bahá'í History Bahá'í Organization Bahá'í Sacred Texts Bahá'í Beliefs God, Prophets and Messengers, Human Nature and the Soul, Original Sin, Evil and Satan, Purpose of Life, Sin and Salvation, Afterlife

Bahá'í Bookstore Bahá'í Ethics Bahá'í Holidays Bahá'í People The Báb, Bahá'u'lláh, 'Abdu’l-Bahá, Shoghi Effendi Bahá'í Practices Bahá'í Store Bahá'í Symbols

Asataru Religion

Ásatrú (Icelandic, "Æsir faith") is a modern revival of the pre-Christian Nordic religion as described in the Norse epic Eddas.

Terminology

Ásatrú is an Old Norse word consisting of Ása, referring to the Norse gods, and trú, "troth" or "faith". Thus, Ásatrú means "religion of the Æsir." The term was coined by Edvard Grieg in his 1870 opera Olaf Trygvason, in the context of 19th century romantic nationalism.

Generally synonymous terms for Asatru include Germanic Neopaganism, Germanic Heathenism, Forn Sed, Odinism, Heithni or Heathenry.

The original, ancient form of Norse religion is usually referred to as Germanic paganism, Germanic religion, or Norse mythology.

History

The ancient origins of Germanic religion date from prehistoric times and are thus unknown. Most of what is known about Germanic religion is derived from descriptions by Latin writers such as Julius Caesar (1st cent. BC) and Tacitus (1st cent. AD), descriptions of early Christian missionaries, and archaeological evidence including cult objects, amulets, grave goods, and place names.

Anglo-Saxon England was converted from Norse paganism to Christianity in the 7th century, Scandinavia in the 10th century. The Germanic/Norse religion gradually disappeared after this, although Christianity absorbed some of its external features, such as the name and popular customs of Easter.

Asatru, the modern attempt to revive the old Norse faith, was founded by the Icelandic farmer Sveinbjörn Beinteinsson (1924–1993). Beinteinsson was a sheep farmer and a priest in the religion, who published a book of rímur (Icelandic rhymed epic poetry) in 1945. In 1972 he petitioned the Icelandic government to recognize the Íslenska Ásatrúarfélagið ("Icelandic fellowship of Æsir faith") as a religious body. It did so in 1973, and Denmark and Norway have since followed.

According to one Asatru website, similar communities were formed in the USA and UK at the same time as those in Iceland, each unaware of the existence of the others. This is a sign that "Odin, the wanderer, is once again seeking worshippers." (Irminsul Ættir)

Today, there are small groups of Asatru adherents throughout Scandinavia and North America. According to the World Christian Encyclopedia, in the 1990s the approximately 300 Icelandic adherents hoped to dechristianize Iceland by the year 2000, the 1000th anniversary of the island's christianization

Texts

Neither ancient Norse religion nor modern Asatru is predominantly text-based, but Norse myths are beautifully preserved in two Icelandic epics called the Eddas.

The first Edda dates from the 12th century AD, when Snorri Sturluson (1179-1241), an Icelandic poet, historian and politician, retold many Norse myths with quotations from poems and explanations of mythological imagery. His goal was to provide a handbook for poets so the ancient lore would not be lost. It was called Edda, which means "great-grandmother" but may also be derived from Oddi, Sturluson's hometown. It is now known as Snorri's Edda or the Prose Edda.

In 1643, a 13th-cent. manuscript book known as the Codex regius was found in an Icelandic farmhous, containing poems on gods and heroes. This collection, together with a few poems from other manuscripts, is called the Elder Edda, Poetic Edda, or Saemund's Edda (after an 11th-cent. scholar). The poems may date from as early as 800 AD and appear to have been composed in pre-Christian times in Norway. They recount the exploits of the gods Freyr, Loki, Odin, and Thor and include riddle contests between gods and giants, and much about the creation and destruction of the worlds of gods and humans.

Beliefs

Ancient Norse paganism and modern Asatru are polytheistic. In the Viking Age (9th-11th cents.), there were four main deities (see below), with earlier gods remembered as minor deities and other supernatural beings of varying importance. Most of these gods are worshipped by modern followers of Asatru.

The Norse gods are of three different types:

• Aesir - the gods of the tribe or clan, representing kingship, order, craft, etc. (incl. Odin and Thor)
• Vanir - gods of the fertility of the earth and forces of nature (incl. Freyr and Freyja)
• Jotnar - giant-gods who are in a constant state of war with the Aesir, representing chaos and destruction

The four main deities in Germanic religion and Asatru are:

• Odin (Germanic Woden) - god of magic, poetry, riches and the dead; ruler of Valhalla (gave his name to Wednesday)
• Thor - sky god who wields a hammer, controls the weather, and protects the law and the community (gave his name to Thursday)
• Freyr - fertility god represented with a phallic statue and seen as the founder of the Swedish royal dynasty
• Freyja - fertility goddess of love and beauty, sister of Freyr, known by many names (including Frigg, Odin's wife and patron of families, who gave her name to Friday)

Other deities:

• Njord - father of Freyr and Freyja, god of ships, sea and lakes
• Tyr (Germanic Tiu) - god of battle, sacrifice, and justice (gave his name to Tuesday)
• Ullr - god of death, winter, and hunting
• Loki - the trickster

The original Germanic religion did not have a unified conception of the afterlife. Some may have believed that fallen warriors would go to Valhalla to live happily with Odin until the Ragnarök, but it seems unlikely this belief was widespread. Others seemed to believe that there was no afterlife. According to the "Hávamál," any misfortune was better than to be burnt on a funeral pyre, for a corpse was a useless object.

More often people believed that life went on for a time after death but was inseparable from the body. If men had been evil in life, they could persecute the living when dead; they might have to be killed a second time or even a third before they were finished. Some records imply that the dead needed company; a wife, mistress, or servant would be placed in the grave with them. On the whole, beliefs in afterlife seem rather gloomy. The dead pass, perhaps by slow stages, to a dark, misty world called Niflheim (Niflheimr).

Modern Asatru beliefs about the afterlife also vary. One Asatru website states:

We believe that there is an afterlife, and that those who have lived virtuous lives will go on to experience greater fulfillment, pleasure, and challenge. Those who have led lives characterized more by vice than by virtue will be separated from kin, doomed to an existence of dullness and gloom. The precise nature of the afterlife - what it will look like and feel like - is beyond our understanding and is dealt with symbolically in the myths. There is also a tradition in Asatru of rebirth within the family line. Perhaps the individual is able to choose whether or not he or she is re-manifested in this world, or there may be natural laws which govern this. In a sense, of course, we all live on in our descendants quite apart from an afterlife as such. To be honest, we of Asatru do not overly concern ourselves with the next world. We live here and now, in this existence. If we do this and do it well, the next life will take care of itself.

Practices

Old Norse/Germanic Religion

In the old Germanic religion, the central practice was animal and human sacrifice, conducted in the open or in groves and forests. Roman authors repeatedly mention the sacrifice of prisoners of war to the gods of victory.

One detailed description of a sacrificial feast is given in a saga about a king of Norway, in which cattle were slaughtered, blood was sprinkled inside and out, the meat was consumed and toasts were drunk to Odin, Njörd, and Freyr. Sacrifices of a more private kind might include the sacrifice of an ox to a god or smearing an elf mound with bull's blood.

Women known as Volva had prophetic gifts. They visited homes, practiced divination and foretold children's destinies. They were probably linked with the Vanir (fertility deities).

Temples were rare but wooden temples seem to have been built in later periods. A major religious center was at Upsala, in NE Sweden.

Asatru (Modern Neopaganism)

Communities of Asatru are called Kindreds, Hearths, or Garths. Priests are called Gothi; priestesses Gythia.

A central Asatru ritual is blot, which means sacrifice and may be connected with the word "blood." In place of traditional animal sacrifice, followers of Asatru offer mead (honey-wine), beer or cider to the gods. The liquid is consecrated to a god or goddess, then the worshippers drink a portion of it and pour the rest as a libation.

Another major practice is sumbel, a ritual toast in three rounds. The first round is to the gods, starting with Odin, who won the mead of poetry from the Giant Suttung. A few drops are poured to Loki to ward off his tricks. The second round is to ancestors and other honorable dead, and the third round is open.

Asatru holidays center on the seasons and are similar to other Neopagan holidays. The major celebrations are:

• Summer Finding (spring equinox, March 21) - dedicated to Ostara
• Winter Finding (fall equinox, September 21)
• Midsummer (summer solstice, June 21)
• Yule - the most important holiday; starts on the winter solstice (December 21) and lasts for 12 days

In place of a list of commandments, followers of Asatru try to follow these "Nine Noble Virtues":

1. Courage
2. Truth
3. Honor
4. Fidelity
5. Discipline
6. Hospitality
7. Industriousness
8. Self-Reliance
9. Perseverance

References and Sources

1. "Germanic religion." John R. Hinnels, ed., The Penguin Dictionary of Religions, 2nd ed. (Penguin Books, 1997).
2. "Germanic religion and mythology." Encyclopædia Britannica (Encyclopædia Britannica Premium Service, 2005).
3. "Iceland." The World Christian Encyclopedia: A Comparative Survey of Churches and Religions in the Modern World, Vol. I (Oxford UP, 2001), p. 388.
4. Rev. Patrick "Jordsvin" Buck, "Asatru, An Ancient Religion Reborn." Irminsul.org.

Aladura Religion

Aladura ("Prayer People") is a Yoruba term for various prophet-healing churches that have developed in west Africa since about 1918.

Fast Facts

• Date founded: c.1918-1930
• Place founded: West Nigeria
• Founder: various
• Adherents: approx. 1 million

History, Sects and Beliefs

Anglican communities flourished among the Yoruba between 1895 and 1920, after the arrival of missionaries. The Aladura movement began about 1918 among the younger elite in the well-established Christian community based on dissatisfaction with Western religious forms, European control of the churches, and lack of spiritual power. The were also influenced by literature from the small U.S. divine-healing Faith Tabernacle Church of Philadelphia.

The 1918 world influenza epidemic precipitated the formation of a prayer group of Anglican laymen at Ijebu-Ode, Nigeria; the group emphasized divine healing, prayer protection, and a puritanical moral code. By 1922 divergences from Anglican practice forced the separation of a group that became known as the Faith Tabernacle, with several small congregations.

The main expansion occurred when a prophet-healer, Joseph Babalola (1906–59), became the center of a mass divine-healing movement in 1930. Yoruba religion was rejected, and Pentecostal features that had been suppressed under U.S. influence were restored. Opposition from traditional rulers, government, and mission churches led the movement to request help from the pentecostal Apostolic Church in Britain. Missionaries arrived in 1932, and the Aladura movement spread and consolidated as the Apostolic Church.

But problems arose over the missionaries' use of Western medicines—clearly contrary to doctrines of divine healing—their exclusion of polygamists, and their assertion of full control over the movement. So in 1938–41 the Babalola and (later Sir) Isaac Akinyele formed the Christ Apostolic Church, which by the 1960s had 100,000 members and its own schools and had spread to Ghana. The Apostolic Church continued its connection with its British counterpart; other secessions produced further "apostolic" churches.

The Cherubim and Seraphim society was founded by Moses Orimolade Tunolase, a Yoruba prophet, and Christiana Abiodun Akinsowon, an Anglican woman who had experienced visions and trances. In 1925–26 they formed the society with doctrines of revelation and divine healing replacing traditional charms and medicine. They separated from the Anglican and other churches in 1928. In the same year the founders parted, and further divisions produced more than 10 major and many minor sections, which spread widely in Nigeria and to Benin (formerly Dahomey), Togo, and Ghana.

A smaller movement, the self-help Aiyetoro ("happy city"), was built on piles on a lagoon mudbank east of Lago by a group of persecuted Cherubim and Seraphim in 1947. Men and women lived separately, strict morals were enforced, a radical economic communism and diverse sophisticated business activities resulted in great prosperity for more than 2,000 members, and death was believed to have been conquered. But by the 1970s internal dissension had appeared and the original utopian impetus had faded.

The Church of the Lord (Aladura) is the largest Aladura movement. It was founded by Josiah Olunowo Oshitelu, an Anglican catechist and schoolteacher, whose unusual visions, fastings, and devotions led to his dismissal in 1926. By 1929 he was preaching judgment on idolatry and native charms and medicines, uttering prophecies, and healing through prayer, fasting, and holy water. The Church of the Lord (Aladura), which he founded at Ogere in 1930, spread to north and east Nigeria, Ghana, Liberia, Sierra Leone, and beyond Africa—New York City and London—where several other Aladura congregations also meet.

Developments since the 1970s have been replacing the Aladura form with Pentecostal Revivalist movements influenced by American models, such as the Church of God Mission in Benin City, and with "spiritual science" movements. The latter meet similar needs as the Aladura by offering semi-secret knowledge of how to acquire spiritual power, and are modeled on examples outside of Christianity such as Subud and the Rosicrucians, which have been long present in Nigeria.

The Aladura movement continues to grow and includes many small secessions, ephemeral groups, prophets with one or two congregations, and healing practitioners in west Africa, Britain, and the United States.

Practices

Aladura practices are a mix of Anglican and African rituals. In the Church of the Lord (Aladura), for example, ministers are given an iron rod about two and a half feet long, looped in a handle at one end, as part of their insignia of office. It symbolizes the powers of the prophet. A prophet touches the objects he consecrates brought by people who come for prayers and healing sessions. Rosaries are used to consecrate water or to pray the psalms. Vestments and gowns are widely used.

References & Sources

1. "Aladura." Encyclopædia Britannica (Encyclopædia Britannica Premium Service, 2005).
2. "Aladura." John R. Hinnels, ed., The Penguin Dictionary of Religions, 2nd ed. (Penguin Books, 1997).