Epicuranism Religion

Epicureanism is an ancient Greek philosophical system taught by Epicurus. It emphasized the goal of a happy and content life in the here and now, rejecting both superstitous fear of the gods and notions of an afterlife.

Though the modern use of the term "Epicurean" is associated with the saying, "Eat, drink and be merry," Epicureanism did not advocate simple pursuit of bodily pleasure and differed significantly from hedonism.

History

The life of Epicurus is better known than any of his contemporaries and he is more of a "personality" than any other ancient philosopher with the exception of Socrates. 2 He was born in 341 BC in the Athenian colony of Samos. In 307 or 306 BC he settled in Athens, where bought a house with a garden. Here he gathered a group of disciples and taught became known as the "philosophy of the Garden."

Epicurus (341-270 BC) . Image © Epicurus.info.

Epicurus and his disciples formed a close-knit community, living a life of austere contentment in seclusion on his property. He admitted both women and slaves to his community, which, along with his seclusion and "atheism," probably led to the rumors and criticisms that circulated about his school. Epicurus was a father-figure to his students and wrote letters of instruction to the Epicurean communities he had formed.

Epicurus died in 270 BC. His followers celebrated his birthday and gave him honors as to a god. No later figure of importance arose in his school, and unlike the changes common to other philosophical schools, Epicureanism was characterized by a conservative tendency in preserving the founder's teachings.

Epicureanism was highly influential in the Hellenistic Age. The Epicureans and the Stoics were the chief rivals for the allegiance of educated people of this period. Both had a continuing influence, but Stoicism, with its active involvement in public life (the philosophy of the Porch instead of the Garden), ultimately appealed to more individuals and had more influence.

Texts

Epicurus is said to have written about 300 scrolls, but little of this survives. His teachings are preserved in three letters and a collection of 40 maxims called the "Principal Doctrines" (Kyriae doxai). The works of Philodemus, a 1st-century BC Epicurean, discovered at Herculaneum, and a large 2nd-century inscription in Lycia, have further added to our knowledge of Epicurus and his teaching.

Beliefs

Epicurus taught a materialistic view of the universe: the whole of nature consists of matter and space. All matter is divisible down to the level of atoms (Greek for "indivisible"). They are eternal; neither created nor destroyed. They cannot be seen or felt with the senses but they do have size, shape, weight and motion. The atoms operate according to natural law. Thus there is no creation and no purpose in nature.

Epicurus also rejected believe in an afterlife. The soul is also made of atoms, though of a subtler sort than the body. 3 Body and soul must be joined to give life; when the body dies, the soul also disintegrates. Therefore, there is no need to fear either death or future punishment.

Epicurus did believe in the gods. The visions of gods in dreams and the universal opinion of humanity proved their existence. But he regarded them as made of atoms like everything else (immortal because their bodies do not dissolve) and living in a happy, detached society out of contact with humans. Thus there is no place for providence, prayer or fear of the gods. Epicurus saw religion as a source of fear; banishing religion made peace of mind possible. He could be said to have had "a theology without a religion." 4

The Epicurean purpose of life is peace of mind, happiness and pleasure. But the Epicurean pursuit of pleasure was neither hedonism nor self-indulgence. Epicurus primarily promoted the pleasures of the mind, friendship and contentment. Epicurus noted that it is human nature to seek pleasure and avoid pain, and made this the basis of his guidelines for living.

We must exercise ourselves in the things which bring happiness, since, if that be present, we have everything, and, if that be absent, all our actions are directed towards attaining it.
(Epicurus, Letter to Menoeceus)

He encouraged seeking after the the highest quality of pleasure, which is rarely the immediate gratifications of hedonism. Epicurus evaluated pleasure and pain by three main criteria:

• intensity - strength of the feeling
• duration - length of the feeling
• purity - i.e., pleasure unaccompanied by pain

Therefore for Epicurus, "there was no reason to eat, drink and be merry today if you are going to have a headache from it tomorrow." 5 Overindulging in food or drink would not score highly on either duration or purity of pleasure. Pleasures that begin with pain are also inferior: eating is a pleasure but it starts with the pain of hunger; sex is a pleasure but it starts with the pain of desire. These pleasures are not as "pure" as those characterized entirely by the absence of pain, such as rest, good health, and the companionship of friends.

Just as pleasure was not to be blindly sought after, so not all pain should be avoided. Sometimes endurance of pain brings greater pleasure so that it is worth it. Moreover, since pleasure and pain are measured quantitatively, pain can be endured in the knowledge that more pleasure has been experienced. Thus Epicurus, who suffered from poor health throughout his life, could say on his death bed:

A happy day is this on which I write to you... The pains which I feel... could not be greater. But all of this is opposed by the happiness which the soul experiences, remembering our conversations of a bygone time. 6

The highest good in Epicureanism is ataraxia, a tranquility derived by the absence of agitation. And the highest positive pleasure of was a society of good friends. It shelters the fearful and gives the pleasure of companionship. He thus replaced the loss of the gods and civic life with the bond that exists among friends.

Practices

To achieve the best pleasure and prevent pain, Epicurus counseled his disciples to live a quiet, secretive life apart from society, avoiding responsibilities in public life (like holding office) or social life (like getting married). This avoids the pain of ambition and fear caused by others.

Interestingly, despite his rejection of the gods as having any bearing on human life, Epicurus encouraged his followers to worship the gods. This is partly for the sake of conformity, but also because the gods are perfect beings who deserve worship and honor. Morever, people receive aesthetic pleasure from contemplating their perfect existence.

References and Sources

1. The Tetrapharmacon, an Epicurean formula that likely dates to Epicurus himself. This translation comes from Gilbert Murray, Five Stages of Greek Religion (1955), 205. A similar formula is found in Philodemus (1st cent. BC), Against the Sophists 4.9-14: "God presents no fears, death no worries; and while good is readily attainable, evil is readily endurable."
2. Everett Ferguson, Backgrounds of Early Christianity, 3rd ed. (Eerdmans, 2003), 372.
3. "Epicureanism." Encyclopædia Britannica (Encyclopædia Britannica Premium Service, 2005).
4. Ferguson, 373.
5. Ibid., 370.
6. Quoted in "Epicureanism." Encyclopædia Britannica (Encyclopædia Britannica Premium Service, 2005).

Eckankarn Religion

Eckankar is a new religious movement based on a 19th-century Indian tradition called Sant Mat, which centers around surat shabd yoga, "yoga of the sound current." Eckankar focuses on spritual exercises enabling practitioners to experience "the Light and Sound of God."

Founded:	1965 in Las Vegas, USA
Founder:	John Paul Twitchell
Adherents:	Estimated at 50,000
Headquarters:	Chanhassen, Minnesota
Text:	Shariyat-Ki-Sugmad ("Way of the Eternal")
Beliefs:	Divine Spirit called "ECK"; salvation through God-realization; reincarnation
Practices:	Spiritual Exercises including mantras, meditation, and dreams

History

Eckankar was founded in Las Vegas in 1965, when John Paul Twitchell (c.1908-71), who had previously been among the first Scientology 'clears,' declared himself to be the 971st Eck Master.

Twitchell studied under Kirpal Singh (1896–1974), one of the master teachers of Sant Mat surat shabd yoga (see below). Twitchell believed that Sound Current yoga had existed since antiquity and that his knowledge and teaching authority stemmed not from Kirpal Singh (who visited the United States in 1955 and 1964) but from an ancient lineage of ECK masters of which he was the 971st. He also claimed he was taught directly by two masters who were no longer in their bodies, Rabazar Tarzs and Sudar Singh.

Dropping the Indian cultural elements from what he had learned, Twitchell founded Eckankar, which offered students a means of "soul transcendence" through techniques that placed them in contact with the Divine Light and Sound. Eckankar is different from Sant Mat in a number of ways, including an increased number of spiritual exercises and inclusion of more temporal concerns like healing, harmony, and problem solving. Twitchell also rejected the Sant Mat ideal of ultimate oneness with the Divine, suggesting that the goal of life is to become a "coworker" with God.

Twitchell died in 1971 and was succeeded by Darwin Gross as leader of the movement. In 1981, Gross passed his authority to Harold Klemp, who remains the spiritual leader of Eckankar today.

In the early 1980s, religious studies scholar David Christopher Lane charged that Twitchell had falsified much of his account of the origin of ECK. Klemp later acknowledged some truth in Lane's accusations but asserted that the essential truth of ECK was unaffected. Shortly thereafter, he oversaw the movement of Eckankar from San Francisco to suburban Minneapolis, Minnesota, where a headquarters and temple complex were constructed.

By the late 1990s there were 367 ECK centres worldwide, of which 164 were in the United States. The Eckankar articles in the Encyclopedia Britannica and the Encyclopedia of American Religions (both by J. Gordon Melton) estimated total membership at 50,000 in the late 1990s.

Texts

The Shariyat-Ki-Sugmad, "Way of the Eternal," written by Twitchell, is the sacred text of Eckankar. Other important Eckankar texts are books by the current leader, Harold Klemp.

Beliefs

Eckankar teaching is considered an advanced form of surat sabd yoga (yoga of the "Sound Current"), which concentrates on physical and spiritual techniques that enable the soul to travel beyond the physical limitations of the body to the higher spiritual realms of the 'Sugmad' - the formless, all-embracing, impersonal and infinite equivalent of God in theistic religions.

Eckankar teaches that the universe was created by a series of sound waves emanating from the Divine, in the course of which the Divine Sound Current became imprisoned in the realm of matter. Humans are sparks of God trapped in a cycle of reincarnation who nonetheless can return to God by listening to the Divine Sound and repeating the Divine Names (mantras).

The leader of Eckankar, Harold Klemp, is regarded as a Living ECK Master, who has "made the journey into the heart of God but has returned to help us on our way home." He has written several published books, but members (see below) are promised more direct instruction from him. (Eckankar.org)

Practices

'Chelas' (students or members) practice spiritual exercises in their own homes and at their own pace. "Eckankar teaches over one hundred different exercises, all designed to give you a greater understanding of yourself and of God." (Eckankar.org) The "Spiritual Exercises of ECK" include meditation, prayer, concentration, mental exercises, mantras, past-life discovery, and conscious dreaming. A central mantra is "HU," said to be an ancient word for God.

These techniques are said to enable Eckankar practitioners to experience "Soul Travel," a spiritual journey into other states of consciousness and other spiritual worlds, as well as solve problems, attain spiritual growth, and have a more meaningful life.

The basics of the spiritual exercises published online and in books available in bookstores. But one can also become an ECK member, which includes stages of initiation, each of which provides "a true awakening" and access to higher states of consciousness. According to the official website:

"Most ECKists receive their First Initiation during the first year of membership, and it often comes in a dream. After two years of ECK membership, you may request your Second Initiation." (Eckankar.org)

Membership also allows members to "link up with" the living ECK master, Harold Klemp.

References & Sources

1. Eckankar.org - Official Eckankar Website.
2. "Eckankar." John R. Hinnels, ed., The Penguin Dictionary of Religions, 2nd ed. (Penguin Books, 1997).
3. John Gordon Melton, "ECKANKAR." Encyclopædia Britannica, 2005).

Christian Science

Above: Mary Baker Eddy; Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures; the Mother Church in Boston.

Christian Science, officially called the Church of Christ, Scientist, is a Christian-based faith that emphasizes physical healing through prayer and a recognition of the nonexistence of matter and illness.

Christian Science should not be confused with Scientology. Despite a somewhat similar name, the two groups are completely different and have almost nothing in common.

Fast Facts

• Date founded: 1879
• Place founded: Massachusetts, USA
• Founder: Mary Baker Eddy (1821-1910)
• Adherents: 150,000 - 400,000 worldwide (see Adherents.com for details)

History

The Church of Christ (Scientist) was founded by Mary Baker Eddy (1821-1910), a semi-invalid who, in 1862, began to learn from Phineas Quimby the possibility of cures without medicine. In 1866 (the year Quimby died), she suffered a severe injury after a fall on ice, and claimed a complete cure without the intervention of medicine. She was reading an account of one of Jesus' healings in the Bible when she suddenly realized that healing comes by spiritual means, and she was instantly cured.

Eddy thereafter devoted herself to the recovery of the healing emphasis in early Christianity, and in 1875 she completed the first edition of her major book, Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures. In 1879, the Church of Christ (Scientist) was incorporated with the purpose of 'commemorating the word and works of our Master'. She became chief pastor of the Mother Church, and wrote The Manual of the Mother Church to govern its affairs. She is referred to as Mrs. Eddy by church members.

At the end of the 20th century, the church had about 2,500 congregations in 70 countries; its headquarters is at the Mother Church in Boston.

Texts

The main texts of Christian Science is the Christian Bible and Eddy's Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures. Both texts are read in Sunday services and studied in private devotions.

Beliefs

Like mainstream Christianity, Christian Science teaches the existence of an all-powerful God and the authority and inspiration of the Bible. Christian Scientists also believe the crucifixion and resurrection of Jesus to be essential to human redemption. Mrs. Eddy taught belief in one God and described God with the synonyms: Principle, Soul, Mind, Spirit, Life, Truth, and Love. Christian Science also departs from traditional Christianity in several doctrines.

The fundamental distinctive teaching of Christian Science is that creation is entirely spiritual and perfect and matter does not exist. Sin, sickness and death also do not exist; we only think they do. "The only reality of sin, sickness, or death is the awful fact that unrealities seem real to human, erring belief, until God strips off their disguise" (Science and Health, 472:27-29).

According to Christian Science, humans are subject to the laws of matter only so long as we believe they are real. So just as in The Matrix Neo could mentally bend a spoon by realizing "there is no spoon," so Christian Scientists can heal themselves spiritually by realizing illness does not exist. (Note: This is a ReligionFacts analogy, not a Christian Science one.)

These core teachings are encapsulated in the "Scientific Statement of Being," which is read at every church service:

There is no life, truth, intelligence, nor substance in matter.
All is infinite Mind and its infinite manifestation, for God is All-in-all.
Spirit is immortal Truth; matter is mortal error.
Spirit is the real and eternal; matter is the unreal and temporal.
Spirit is God, and man is His image and likeness.
Therefore man is not material; he is spiritual. (S&H 468)

Christian Scientists refer to God as "Father-Mother" rather than the biblical "Father." Though unconventional, this is not a major departure from mainstream Christianity, since God is believed to encompass both male and female (both were created "in the image of God").

Christian Science teaches that Jesus is divine but not God, and that Jesus' human nature is a separate entity from the divine Christ. "Jesus Christ is not God, as Jesus himself declared, but is the Son of God" (Science and Health, 361:12-13). "Jesus is the name of the man who, more than all other men, has presented Christ, the true idea of God, healing the sick and sinning and destroying the power of death" (Science and Health, 473:10-17).

Mary Baker Eddy taught that the Holy Spirit is equivalent with "divine Science," i.e., the teachings of Christian Science. "In the words of St. John: ‘He shall give you another Comforter, that he may abide with you forever.’ This Comforter I understand to be Divine Science." (Science and Health, 55:27-29) "His [Jesus'] students then received the Holy Ghost. By this is meant, that by all they had witnessed and suffered, they were roused to an enlarged understanding of divine Science, even to the spiritual interpretation and discernment of Jesus’ teachings and demonstrations, which gave them a faint conception of the Life which is God" (Science and Health, 46:30-47:3).

Mrs. Eddy rejected the traditional doctrine of the Trinity, saying that it suggests polytheism (Science and Health, 256:9-11). She did, however, accept the threefold nature of God, defining it as a trinity of "Life, Truth, and Love," or "God the Father-Mother, Christ the spiritual idea of sonship, and divine Science or the Holy Comforter" (Science and Health 331:26-332:3).

Eddy defined salvation as follows: "Life, Truth, and Love understood and demonstrated as supreme over all; sin, sickness and death destroyed" (Science and Health, 593:20-22).

Heaven and hell are states of mind. Heaven is "not a locality, but a divine state of Mind in which all the manifestations of Mind are harmonious and immortal" (Science and Health, 291:13-16). It is "Harmony; the reign of Spirit; government by the divine Principle; spirituality; bliss; the atmosphere of Soul." (Science and Health, 587:25-27). Hell is "Mortal belief; error; lust; remorse; hatred; revenge; sin; sickness; death; suffering and self-destruction; self-imposed agony; effects of sin; that which 'worketh abomination or maketh a lie.'" (Science and Health, 588:1-4).

Christian Science has no creed, but Eddy listed six "important points, or religious tenets" in Science and Health (496) as follows:

1. As adherents of Truth, we take the inspired Word of the Bible as our sufficient guide to eternal Life.
2. We acknowledge and adore one supreme and infinite God. We acknowledge His Son, one Christ; the Holy Ghost or divine Comforter; and man in God's image and likeness.
3. We acknowledge God's forgiveness of sin in the destruction of sin and the spiritual understanding that casts out evil as unreal. But the belief in sin is punished so long as the belief lasts.
4. We acknowledge Jesus' atonement as the evidence of divine, efficacious Love, unfolding man's unity with God through Christ Jesus the Way-shower; and we acknowledge that man is saved through Christ, through Truth, Life, and Love as demonstrated by theGalilean Prophet in healing the sick and overcoming sin and death.
5. We acknowledge that the crucifixion of Jesus and his resurrection served to uplift faith to understand eter- nal Life, even the allness of Soul, Spirit, and the nothingness of matter.
6. And we solemnly promise to watch, and pray for that Mind to be in us which was also in Christ Jesus; to do unto others as we would have them do unto us; and to be merciful, just, and pure.

Practices

Spiritual healing of disease is a central focus of the Church of Christ, Scientist, for its own sake as well as its evidence of redemption from the flesh. Most members refuse medical help for disease. This is the church's most controversial practice. However, Christian Scientists are generally teach cooperation with local laws, such as in getting vaccinations, reporting communicable diseases, etc., and leave the decision to seek physical treatments up to each individual. "Healthcare decisions are always a matter of individual choice." ("About Christian Science." Official Website of the Mother Church)

There is no ordained clergy in Christian Science. Members engaged in the full-time healing ministry are called Christian Science practitioners and services are conducted by elected Readers. Practitioners treat church members through prayer, and members are encouraged to pray as well.

The Mother Church is governed by a Board of Directors comprised of six members who choose their own successors. Each branch is self-governed and democratic. The Manual of The Mother Church that governs the movement has remained virtually unchanged since Eddy's death.

Readers lead Sunday services based on readings from the Bible and Eddy's Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures. These are based on Lesson-Sermons developed by the Mother Church, which are also used in daily private study.

Christian Scientists do not practice the sacraments of baptism or the Eucharist; these are affirmed but understood in spiritual terms. "Our baptism is purification from all error... Our Eucharist is spiritual communion with the one God. Our bread, 'which cometh down from heaven,' is Truth. Our cup is the cross. Our wine the inspiration of Love, the draught the Master drank and commended to his followers" (Science and Health 35).

References & Sources

1. "Christian Science." John R. Hinnels, ed., The Penguin Dictionary of Religions, 2nd ed. (Penguin Books, 1997).
2. "Christian Science." John Bowker, ed., The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions (Oxford UP, 2000).
3. Official Website of the First Church of Christ, Scientist.
4. Science and Health, as published online at Spirituality.com

Confucianism Religion

Confucianism is a way of life taught by Confucius in the 6th–5th century BC. Sometimes viewed as a philosophy, sometimes as a religion, Confucianism is perhaps best understood as an all-encompassing humanism that neither denies nor slights Heaven.

Confucianism has been followed by the Chinese for more than two millennia. It has deeply influenced spiritual and political life in China; its influence has also extended to Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. East Asians may profess themselves to be Shintoists, Taoists, Buddhists, Muslims, or Christians - but seldom do they cease to be Confucians.

Fast Facts

• Date founded: 6th-5th cent. BC
• Place founded: China
• Founder: Confucius (551-479 BC)
• Adherents: 5-6 million

Confucius, the common name of Confucianism's founder, is a Latinized form of the Chinese K'ung-fu-tzu, "Master K'ung."

The terms "Confucianism" and "Confucian," derived from the Latinized Confucius, are not meaningful terms in Chinese. They are western terms, coined in Europe as recently as the 18th century.

History

Life of Confucius

Confucius was born in 551 BC in the small feudal state of Lu in what is now Shantung Province. Confucius' ancestors were probably members of the aristocracy who had become virtual poverty-stricken commoners by the time of his birth. His father died when Confucius was only three years old. Instructed first by his mother, Confucius then distinguished himself as a passionate learner in his teens.

Confucius had served in minor government posts managing stables and keeping books for granaries before he married a woman of similar background when he was 19. It is not known who Confucius' teachers were, but his mastery of the six arts—ritual, music, archery, charioteering, calligraphy, and arithmetic—and his familiarity with the classical traditions, notably poetry and history, enabled him to start a brilliant teaching career in his 30s.

Confucius developed concepts about education, society and government that he hoped to put into practice in a political career. But his loyalty to the king alienated him from the power holders of the time, the large Chi families, and his moral rectitude did not sit well with the king's inner circle, who enraptured the king with sensuous delights. At 56, when he realized that his superiors were uninterested in his policies, Confucius left the country in an attempt to find another feudal state to which he could render his service. Despite his political frustration he was accompanied by an expanding circle of students during this self-imposed exile of almost 12 years. His reputation as a man of vision and mission spread.

At the age of 67 Confucius returned home to teach and to preserve his cherished classical traditions by writing and editing. He died in 479 BC, at the age of 73. In the Analects (2:4), Confucius is recorded as summarizing his life this way:

At 15 I set my heart on learning; at 30 I firmly took my stand; at 40 I had no delusions; at 50 I knew the Mandate of Heaven; at 60 my ear was attuned; at 70 I followed my heart's desire without overstepping the boundaries of right.

Also in the Analects, Confucius assists a student who was having difficulty describing him:

Why did you not simply say something to this effect: he is the sort of man who forgets to eat when he engages himself in vigorous pursuit of learning, who is so full of joy that he forgets his worries, and who does not notice that old age is coming on? (7:18)

Confucianism

The story of Confucianism does not really begin with Confucius, nor was Confucius the founder of Confucianism in the same way that Buddha was the founder of Buddhism. Rather, Confucius considered himself a transmitter who consciously tried to retrieve the meaning of the past by breathing vitality into seemingly outmoded rituals. Confucius' love of antiquity was motivated by his strong desire to understand why certain rituals, such as the ancestral cult, reverence for Heaven, and mourning ceremonies, had survived for centuries. He had faith in the cumulative power of culture. Confucius' sense of history was so strong that he saw himself as a conservationist responsible for the continuity of the cultural values and the social norms that had worked so well for the civilization of the Chou dynasty.

Mencius, Xunzi, and others sustained Confucianism after Confucius, but it was not influential until Dong Zhongshu emerged in the 2nd century BC. Confucianism was then recognized as the Han state cult (introducing religious elements and sacrifices to Confucius), and the Five Classics (see Texts, below) became the core of education.

In spite of the strong influence of Daoism and Buddhism, Confucian ethics have had the strongest influence on the moral fabric of Chinese society. A revival of Confucian thought in the 11th century produced Neo-Confucianism, a major influence in Korea during the Choson dynasty and in Japan during the Tokugawa period.

In 1530 AD, a Ming emperor reformed the Confucian cult to focus more on Confucius' teachings than the sage himself (e.g. images of Confucius were replaced with inscribed tablets). The cult of Confucius declined after the founding of the Chinese Republic in 1912, but the influence of Confucianism continues.

Beliefs

The main principle of Confucianism is ren ("humaneness" or "benevolence"), signifying excellent character in accord with li (ritual norms), zhong (loyalty to one's true nature), shu (reciprocity), and xiao (filial piety). Together these constitute de (virtue).

Confucianism is characterized by a highly optmistic view of human nature. The faith in the possibility of ordinary human beings to become awe-inspiring sages and worthies is deeply rooted in the Confucian heritage (Confucius himself lived a rather ordinary life), and the insistence that human beings are teachable, improvable, and perfectible through personal and communal endeavour is typically Confucian.

Confucius regarded Heaven (T'ien) as a positive and personal force in the universe; he was not, as some have supposed, an agnostic or a skeptic.

Practices

Aside from its important ethical principles, Confucianism does not prescribe any specific rituals or practices. These are filled by the practices of Chinese religion, Taoism, Buddhism, or other religion which Confucians follow.

Texts

The Lun-yü (Analects) are the most revered sacred scripture in the Confucian tradition. It was probably compiled by the second generation of Confucius' disciples. Based primarily on the Master's sayings, preserved in both oral and written transmissions, it captures the Confucian spirit in the same way that the Platonic dialogues embody Socratic teachings.

The Confucian Canon achieved its present form in the Sung dynasty under the direction of Chu Hsi (1130-1200). It consists of the Five Classics and the Four Books.

The Five Classics are:

1. Shu Ching (Classic of History) - collection of documents and speeches dating from the Later Han Dynasty (23-220 CE)
2. Shih Ching (Classic of Odes) - collection of 300 poems and songs from the early Chou Dynasty (1027-402 BC)
3. I Ching (Classic of Changes) - collection of texts on divination based on a set of 64 hexagrams that reflect the relationship between Yin and Yang in nature and society
4. Ch'un Ching (Spring and Autumn Annals) - extracts from the history of the state of Lu 722-484, said to be compiled by Confucius
5. Li Ching (Classic of Rites) - consists of three books on the Li (Rites of Propriety)

The Four Books are:

1. Lun Yu (Analects) of Confucius
2. Chung Yung (Doctrine of the Mean)
3. Ta Hsueh (Great Learning)
4. Meng Tzu (Mencius)

References & Sources

1. "Confucianism" and "Confucius." Encyclopædia Britannica (Encyclopædia Britannica Premium Service, 2005).
2. "Confucian canon," "Confucian State Cult," and "Confucius." John R. Hinnels, ed., The Penguin Dictionary of Religions, 2nd ed. (Penguin Books, 1997).

Christianty Religion

A Christian church in England. Photo: Sacred Destinations.

"From the majestic pontifical High Mass in St. Peter's to the quiet simplicity of a Quaker meeting... from the intellectual sophistication of Saint Thomas Aquinas to the moving simplicity of spirituals such as "Lord, I want to be a Christian"... from St. Paul's in London to Mother Teresa in the slums of Calcutta...
all this is Christianity."

--Huston Smith, The World's Religions

Christianity was founded in the early 1st century AD, with the teaching, miracles, crucifixion and resurrection of Jesus of Nazareth. Today it is the largest religion in the world, with around 2 billion followers. Especially dominant in the western world, today's Christianity has a wide variety of forms, beliefs and practices but all center around faith in Jesus Christ.

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Deepak Chopra and the Chopra Center

Deepak Chopra is an Indian-born American physician who teaches that health and success can be found through a system of Ayurvedic medicine, yoga, and mind-body-spirit integration.

Fast Facts

Date founded:

1991

Place founded:

California, USA

Founder:

Deepak Chopra (1947-)

Adherents:

Unknown, but Chopra's books, CDs, and courses have sold millions of copies

Headquarters:

The Chopra Center for Well Being, La Jolla, California

History

Deepak Chopra, M.D., graduated from the All India Institute of Medical Sciences in 1968, and after interning at a New Jersey hospital, trained for several more years at the Lahey Clinic in Burlington, Massachusetts and the University of Virginia Hospital. He taught at Tufts and Boston University Schools of Medicine, became the chief of staff at the New England Memorial Hospital and established a large private practice in the field of endocrinology.

In Washington D.C., in 1985, Chopra learned under Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, the founder of the Transcendental Meditation movement. Chopra has since broken ties with Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, but continues to promote meditation as a way to develop a deeper self-knowledge.

According to the Chopra Center website, Chopra's teachings derived from his dissatisfaction with the ability of conventional western medicine to help his patients. He therefore developed a wellness system based upon a combination of western medicine and Ayurvedic principles of health and spirituality.

Beliefs

Chopra's teachings about the human being and its wellness are based on a Hindu pantheism or monism (everything that exists is ultimately a unity). Thus the Divine pervades the entire universe as well as human beings, and every person has divinity within himself or herself. Chopra writes, "we remain unfulfilled unless we nurture the seeds of divinity inside us. In reality we are divinity in disguise, and the gods and goddesses in embryo that are contained within us seek to he fully materialized." {1}

Based on this fundamental worldview, Deepak Chopra teaches the belief, a main tenet of New Age spirituality, that human possibility is limitless. With proper knowledge and practice, humans can lengthen their life, achieve perfect health, and achieve all their dreams. This emphasis can be seen in the titles of his books, listed above.

Chopra's main teaching is that the body, mind, and spirit are inseparable and affect one another. Therefore "health is more than the absence of disease; it is a dynamic state of balance and integration of body, mind, and spirit." {2}

Chopra teaches that each person inherits a particular mix of doshas, three "mind/body principles which creates our specific mental and physical characteristics." {3} One or two of these are the most dominant in each person, and keeping the dosha(s) in balance (through particular practices, foods, and products) is a key to mind-body health.

• Vata dosha - thin, light and quick in thoughts and actions. In balance: creative, enthusiastic and lively. Out of balance: anxiety, insomnia or irregular digestion.
• Pitta dosha - muscular, smart and determined. In balance: warm, intelligent and a good leader. Out of balance: critical, irritable and aggressive.
• Kapha dosha - heavier frame, think and move leisurely, stable personality. In balance: calmness, sweetness and loyalty. Out of balance: weight gain, congestion and resistance to healthy change.

Chopra promises that mastery of his principles will not only bring physical and spiritual health, but also material success. He writes that his teachings "will give you the ability to create unlimited wealth with effortless ease, and to experience success in every endeavor" {4}.

Practices

Chopra teaches a lifestyle that includes meditation, yoga, mindfulness in daily life, proper nutrition based on whole foods, detoxing through fasting, enemas, and massage, and abstinence from drugs, alcohol, tobacco, and junk food. He teaches methods of healing that include both physical treatments and mental techniques such as focusing attention on the area of pain.

Chopra's "Ten Keys to Happiness" are:

1. Listen to your body's wisdom.
2. Live in the present, for it is the only moment you have.
3. Take time to be silent, to meditate.
4. Relinquish your need for external approval.
5. When you find yourself reacting with anger or opposition to any person or circumstance, realize that you are only struggling with yourself.
6. Know that the world "out there" reflects your reality "in here."
7. Shed the burden of judgement.
8. Don't contaminate your body with toxins, either food, drink, or toxic emotions.
9. Replace fear-motivated behavior with love-motivated behavior.
10. Understand that the physical world is just a mirror of a deeper intelligence.

The "Seven Spiritual Laws of Success" are:

1. Law of Pure Potentiality (i.e. discovering the unity of the true self with the universe; "Atman is Brahman")
2. Law of Giving (giving releases divine power and energy)
3. Law of Karma (cause and effect of actions; "there is a perfect accounting system in this universe," p. 45)
4. Law of Least Effort (going with the flow of the universal energy, as in Taoism)
5. Law of Intention and Desire
6. Law of Detachment
7. Law of Dharma (having a purpose in life)

Texts

Chopra has derived his teachings in part from the Bhagavad-Gita, but the central texts of his movement are Chopra's own books, which have a sacred quality to many of his enthusiasts. Among Chopra's many books are:

• Quantum Healing: Exploring the Frontiers of Mind/Body Medicine (1990)
• Perfect Health Library: Perfect Digestion, Perfect Weight, Restful Sleep (1990)
• The Unconditional Life: Discover the Power to Fulfill Your Dreams (1991)
• Ageless Body, Timeless Mind: The Quantum Alternative to Growing Old (1993)
• Creating Affluence: Wealth Consciousness in the Field of All Possibilities (1993)
• Journey Into Healing (1994)
• Creating Health (1995)
• The Way of the Wizard: Twenty Spiritual Lessons for Creating the Life You Want (1995)
• The Seven Spiritual Laws of Success: A Practical Guide to the Fulfillment of Your Dreams (1995)
• The Return of Merlin (1996; fictional novel)
• The Path to Love (1997)
• Creating Affluence: A-Z Steps to a Richer Life (1998)
• How to Know God: The Soul's Journey into the Mystery of Mysteries (2000)
• The Deeper Wound: Recovering the Soul from Fear and Suffering, 100 Days of Healing (2001)
• Grow Younger, Live Longer: 10 Steps to Reverse Aging (2001)
• Golf for Enlightenment: The Seven Lessons for the Game of Life (2003)
• The Spontaneous Fulfillment of Desire: Harnessing the Infinite Power of Coincidence (2003)
• Synchrodestiny: Harnessing the Infinite Power of Coincidence to Create Miracles (2003)
• The Book of Secrets: Unlocking the Hidden Dimensions of Your Life (2004)
• Peace Is the Way: Bringing War and Violence to an End (2005)

References & Sources

1. Seven Spiritual Laws of Success, p. 3.
2. "About Ayurveda," The Chopra Center.
3. "What's my Dosha?" The Chopra Center.
4. Seven Spiritual Laws of Success, pp. 1-2.

Chinese Religion

Chinese New Year in London. Photo: lewishamdreamer.

Chinese religion is not an organized, unified system of beliefs and practices. It has no leadership, no headquarters, no founder, and no denominations. Instead, "Chinese religion" is a general term used to describe the complex interaction of different religious and philosophical traditions that have been especially influential in China.

Although other religious traditions have been influential in China, Chinese religion is primarily composed of four main traditions: Chinese folk religion, Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism. The religious outlook of most Chinese people consists of some combination of beliefs and practices from these four traditions. It is very rare for only one to be practiced to the exclusion of the others.

Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism, each of which is a significant part of Chinese religion, are treated in their own sections on ReligionFacts. This section focuses especially on Chinese folk or indigenous religion, but reference is also made to the other traditions.

Cao Dai Religion

Cao Dai (a.k.a. Dao Cao Dai or Caodaism) is a syncretist Vietnamese religious movement with a strongly nationalist political character. Cao Dai draws upon ethical precepts from Confucianism, occult practices from Taoism, theories of karma and rebirth from Buddhism, and a hierarchical organization (including a pope) from Roman Catholicism. Its pantheon of saints includes such diverse figures as the Buddha, Confucius, Jesus Christ, Muhammad, Pericles, Julius Caesar, Joan of Arc, Victor Hugo, and Sun Yat-sen.

The Divine Eye.


Cao Dai Temple in Vietnam.


Cao Dai worshipers.


Cao Dai priests.

Fast Facts

• Date founded: 1926
• Place founded: Vietnam
• Founder: Ngo Van Chieu
• Adherents: 2-6 million

History

In 1919 Ngo Van Chieu, an administrator for the French in Indochina, received a communication from the supreme deity during a table-moving séance. Chieu became the prophet of the new religion, which was formally established in 1926. Caodaists believe this ushered in Tam Ky Pho Do or the Third Period of Salvation, a period marked by direct revelation between heaven and earth. Caodaism is the Dai Dao or great religion of this period.

A Cao Dai army was established in 1943 during the Japanese occupation of Indochina. After the war the Cao Dai was an effective force in national politics; it first supported, then opposed, Premier Ngo Dinh Diem. In 1955–56 Diem disbanded the Cao Dai army and forced the sect's pope, Pham Cong Tac, into exile.

After the communist takeover in 1975, Cao Dai was reportedly repressed by the government. Centers of worship were established in Vietnamese refugee communities abroad, however, and by the early 1990s Cao Dai was reported to have some two million adherents in Vietnam, Cambodia, France, and the United States. 1

Today, Cao Dai adherents may number as high as 6 million, at least according to Cao Dai sources. 2 The headquarters of Cao Dai are at Tay Ninh, near Ho Chi Minh City (formerly Saigon).

Beliefs

In its beliefs, Cao Dai draws upon ethical precepts from Confucianism and theories of karma and rebirth from Buddhism, with some influence from Catholicism. It is a very syncretistic faith, and proudly so. According to one Cao Dai follower and author:

"That's the reason God has founded Cao Dai, in order to bring harmony to different religions. And the principle of Cao Dai is that religions are not different and if we take enough time to study deep --deeply enough in each religion, we would see that they have one same principal, if not identical principal." 3

Similarly, a Cao Dai website describes the religion's worldview this way:

The noble effort of CaoDai is to unite all of humanity through a common vision of the Supreme Being, whatever our minor differences, in order to promote peace and understanding throughout the world. CaoDai does not seek to create a gray world, where all religions are exactly the same, only to create a more tolerant world, where all can see each other as sisters and brothers from a common divine source reaching out to a common divine destiny realizing peace within and without. 4

The supreme being is Cao Dai ("High Tower"), a Taoist epithet for the supreme god. Cao Dai is regarded as the same supreme being honored in all major world religions, but the term Cao Dai avoids gender, personality or other earthly attributes. God is represented as the Divine Eye, an eye in a triangle, which appears on the facades of the sect's temples and in followers' homes. It is a left eye, because God is Yang, and Yang is the left side.

Cao Dai's saints include such diverse figures as the Buddha, Confucius, Jesus Christ, Muhammad, Pericles, Julius Caesar, Joan of Arc, Victor Hugo, and Sun Yat-sen. These are honored at Cao Dai temples, along with ancestors.

In Cao Dai, the purpose of life is peace within each individual and harmony in the world. Cao Dai followers also seek to gain religious merit and avoid bad karma.

Cao Dai beliefs about the afterlife are derived from Buddhism. Those who have gathered too much bad karma during their lifetime will be reincarnated in negative circumstances, which may include rebirth on a darker, colder planet than this one. Good karma leads to rebirth to a better life on earth.

Salvation is freedom from rebirth and the attainment of nirvana or heaven. "The ultimate goal of CaoDaists is to be reunified with The All That Is, to return home." 5

Practices

Cao Dai draws upon occult practices from Taoism and includes communication with the dead in séances. This has been outlawed by the Vietnamese government, but Cao Dai leaders also say that it is no longer necessary.

"We don't see the necessity to have séance any more because we have direct communication from the Supreme Being to people by returning inside to our heart to see the Supreme Being in there." 3

Cao Dai encourages obedience to the three duties (between king and citizen, father and child, husband and wife), and five virtues (humanity, obligation, civility, knowledge, reliability) of Confucianism.

Cao Dai's organization is patterned after that of Roman Catholicism, with nine levels of hierarchy including a pope, cardinals, and archbishops.

Worship involves group prayer in the temple, elaborate rituals and festivals.

Similar to the division in Theravada Buddhism between lay Buddhists and monks, Cao Dai offers two ways of practice its adherents. 6 Esoterism focuses on meditation, with the goal "to progressively eradicate the inferior self and develop the divine element within the self, reaching toward oneness with the Supreme Being." These are priests of Cao Dai, which can be men and women. Exoterism is the form available to laypersons living a normal family life. These are expected to:

• cultivate the Confucian duties and virtues (see above)
• practice good and avoid evil
• observe five Precepts: do not kill, do not steal, do not commit adultery, do not get drunk, do not sin by word.
• practice vegetarianism at least ten days per month, to purify one's body and spirit and to avoiding killing living beings
• participate in worship to the Supreme Being through four daily ceremonies, at 6:00 a.m., noon, 6:00 p.m., and midnight, with at least one ceremony per day at home

References & Sources

1. "Cao Dai." Encyclopædia Britannica (Encyclopædia Britannica Premium Service, 2005).
2. Cao Dai. Adherents.com.
3. "Cao Dai." PBS Religion & Ethics Newsweekly Feature, July 4, 2003. The quote is from Dr. Hum Bui, a California doctor and co-author of Cao Dai: Faith of Unity.
4. Home page, caodai.org.
5. "How does one practice Cao Dai." caodai.org.
6. Ibid.