Mayan Religion

The Maya are a native Mesoamerican people who developed one of the most sophisticated cultures in the Western Hemisphere before the arrival of the Spanish.

Mayan religion was characterized by the worship of nature gods (especially the gods of sun, rain and corn), a priestly class, the importance of astronomy and astrology, rituals of human sacrifice, and the building of elaborate pyramidical temples.

Some aspects of Mayan religion survive today among the Mayan Indians of Mexico and Central America, who practice a combination of traditional religion and Roman Catholicism.

A Mayan calendar.



Mayan wall panel from 790 AD, during the Late Classic Period. Dallas Museum of Art. Photo: Mary Harrsch.



Sculptures of the rain and fertility god Chac on a Mayan temple in Uxmal, Mexico.
Photo: Steve Bridger.

Date founded:

c.250 AD (rise of the Maya civilization)

Place founded:

Mesoamerica (Southern Mexico, Guatemala, Belize)

Founder:

none

Adherents:

At one time up to 2 million. Today, several million Maya practice a Roman Catholicism that retains many elements of traditional Mayan religion.

Texts:

Dresden, Madrid, and Paris codices; Books of Chilam Balam; Popol Vuh; The Ritual of the Bacabs

Theism:

Polytheism

Main gods:

Itzamná; Kukulcán (Quetzalcóatl); Bolon Tzacab; Chac

Practices:

Astronomy, divination, human sacrifice, elaborate burial for royalty, worship in stone pyramid-temples

History

The Mayan civilization arose in Mesoamerica around 250 AD, influenced by the culture and religion of the Olmecs. The Mayan urban culture especially flourished until about 900 AD, but continued to thrive in various places until the Spanish conquest.

During this first 650 years, which scholars call the Classic Period, the Mayan civilization consisted of more than 40 sizeable cities spread across modern-day Mexico, Guatemala, and northern Belize.

At its peak, the total population may have reached 2 million people, the majority of whom lived in modern-day Guatemala. The cities seem to have been mainly ceremonial centers, with the majority of the Maya living a rural, agricultural life around the cities.

Sometime after 900 AD, the Mayan culture declined dramatically and most of the cities were abandoned. Latest scholarship attributes this decline to the loss of trade routes due to war.

The great southern cities became depopulated, but the cities of the Yucatan peninsula in Mexico (such as Chichén Itzá, Uxmal, and Mayapán) continued to thrive in the early part of the "Post-Classic Period" (900–1519). By the arrival of the Spanish in the early 16th century, however, most of the Maya were village-dwelling farmers.

The remaining Maya were conquered by the Spanish and converted (at least nominally) to Roman Catholicism. The present-day Mayan peoples are spread mainly across southern Mexico, with small numbers in Guatemala and Belize. They practice a religion that combines Roman Catholicism with Mayan cosmology, deities, and domestic rituals.

Mayan hieroglyphics carved in a temple at Palenque, Mexico. Photo: mike nl.

Texts

The Maya had a highly sophisticated culture, and this included a written hieroglyphic language. Mayan hieroglyphics were carved into stone monuments or pieces of bone, painted on pottery, and written on books (codices) of bark paper.

Mayan texts describe religious rituals, astronomy, and divination, and are the most valuable source of information on the ancient civilization. Many of them were destroyed by the Spanish because of their pagan religious content, but three main codices have survived. Named for the cities in which they are now kept, these are the Dresden, Madrid, and Paris codices. The Dresden Codex contains very precise tables of Venus and the moon and describes a method of predicting solar eclipses.

The Madrid Codex, a Mayan text.

Other important texts are those written by learned Indians who transcribed or summarized Mayan hieroglyphic records into Latin script. One of these is the Books of Chilam Balam, written in Yucatec Maya and consisting of historical chronicles mixed with myth, divination, and prophecy. Another text, The Ritual of the Bacabs, covers religious symbolism, medical incantations, and similar matters.

Perhaps the most famous of these texts is the Popol Vuh (1554-1558), which was written in Quiché, a highland Maya language, and translated into Spanish by a priest. This tells of the mythology and cosmology of the Postclassic Guatemalan Maya, and shows central Mexican influences. It chronicles the creation of man, the actions of the gods, the origin and history of the Quiché people, and the chronology of their kings down to 1550.

These Mayan texts were not regarded as sacred or authoritative in themselves (they are not revelations from the divine like the Bible or Quran), but rather as important records of religious rituals and knowledge.

Sculpture of Chac on a temple in Chichen-Itza, Mexico.

Beliefs

The Maya worshipped a pantheon of nature gods, each of which had both a benevolent side and a malevolent side. The most important deity was the supreme god Itzamná, the creator god, the god of the fire and god of the hearth.

Another important Mayan god was Kukulcán, the Feathered Serpent, who appears on many temples and was later adopted by the Toltecs and Aztecs as Quetzalcoatl. Also important was Chac, a hooked-nose god of rain and lightning.

A third god that frequently appears in Mayan art is Bolon Tzacab, who is depicted with a branching nose and is often held like a sceptre in rulers' hands. He is thought to have functioned as a god of royal descent.

Sculptures with jaguar headdresses on a Mayan temple in Kabah, Mexico. Photo: mike nl.

Mayan rulers were seen as intermediaries between the gods and the people, and as semi-divine themselves. They were buried in elaborate tombs filled with valuable offerings.

The Mayan view of the afterlife consisted primarily of a dangerous voyage of the soul through the underworld, which was populated by sinister gods and represented by the jaguar, symbol of night. The majority of Maya, including the rulers, went to this underworld. Heaven was reserved for those who had been sacrificed or died in childbirth.

To the Maya, science and religion were one and the same. The Maya developed an impressive system of mathematics and astronomy, which was initimately related to religious rituals. Their mathematical achievements included positional notation and the use of zero; in astronomy, they accurately calculated a solar year, compiled precise tables of positions for the Moon and Venus, and were able to predict solar eclipses.

The Observatory at Chichen Itza.

The Maya were obsessed with time; to understand and predict various cycles of time allowed them to adapt to and best make use of their natural world. Mayan cosmology had it that the world had been created five times and destroyed four times. On a more temporal scale, the various days of the year were considered appropriate to specific activities, while some were entirely unlucky.

Practices

The Maya practiced a form of divination that centered on their elaborate calendar system and extensive knowledge of astronomy. It was the job of the priests to discern lucky days from unlucky ones, and advising the rulers on the best days to plant, harvest, wage war, etc. They were especially interested in the movements of the planet Venus — the Maya rulers scheduled wars to coordinate with its rise in the heavens.

A Mayan calendar.

The Mayan calendar was very advanced, and consisted of a solar year of 365 days. It was divided into 18 months of 20 days each, followed by a five-day period that was highly unlucky. There was also a 260-day sacred year (tzolkin), divided into days named by the combination of 13 numbers and 20 names.

For longer periods, the Maya identified an elaborate system of periods and cycles of various lengths. In ascending order, these were: kin (day); uinal (20 days); tun (18 uinals/360 days); katun (20 tuns/7,200 days); baktunbaktun (20 katuns/144,000 days), and so on, with the highest cycle being the alautun (23,040,000,000 days).

These units were used in the Maya Long Count, which calculated the time elapsed from a zero date set at 3114 BC. In the Postclassical Period, the method of notation was somewhat simplified, and the Long Count katuns end with the name Ahau (Lord), combined with one of 13 numerals; and their names form a Katun Round of 13 katuns.

Pyramid temple at Chichen-Itza, Mexico. Photo: Aaron Logan.

This change makes it difficult to correlate the Mayan count with the Christian calendar, but scholars are fairly confident that the katun 13 Ahau, which seems to have had great significance for the Mayan, ended on November 14, 1539. It has been calculated that the next katun, which the Popul Vuh describes as the catastrophic end of the world, will end on December 21, 2012. Naturally, this has inspired quite a bit of speculation as to what might happen on this date.

Until the mid-20th century, scholars believed the Maya to be a peaceful, stargazing people, fully absorbed in their religion and astronomy and not violent like their neighboring civilizations to the north. This was based on the Maya's impressive culture and scientific discoveries and a very limited translation of their written texts.

Mayan hieroglyphics in the Dresden Codex.

But since then, nearly all of the Mayan hieroglyphic writings have been deciphered, and a much different picture has emerged. The texts record that the Mayan rulers waged war on rival Mayan cities, took their rulers captive, then tortured them and ritually sacrificed them to the gods.

In fact, human sacrifice seems to have been a central Mayan religious practice. It was believed to encourage fertility, demonstrate piety, and propitiate the gods. The Mayan gods were thought to be nourished by human blood, and ritual bloodletting was seen as the only means of making contact with them. The Maya believed that if they neglected these rituals, cosmic disorder and chaos would result.

A great stone pyramid at Uxmal, Mexico. Photo: Steve Bridger.

At important ceremonies, the sacrificial victim was held down at the top of a pyramid or raised platform while a priest made an incision below the rib cage and ripped out the heart with his hands. The heart was then burned in order to nourish the gods.

It was not only the captives who suffered for the sake of the gods: the Mayan aristocracy themselves, as mediators between the gods and their people, underwent ritual bloodletting and self-torture. The higher one's position, the more blood was expected. Blood was drawn by jabbing spines through the ear or penis, or by drawing a thorn-studded cord through the tongue; it was then spattered on paper or otherwise collected as an offering to the gods.

Other Mayan religious rituals included dancing, competition, ball games, dramatic performances, and prayer to the gods.

References

1. "Maya." Encyclopædia Britannica (Encyclopædia Britannica Online, November 2006).
2. "pre-Columbian civilizations." Encyclopædia Britannica (Encyclopædia Britannica Online, November 2006).
3. The Mayas - Richard Hooker's World Civilizations

Kemetic Reconstructionsm

Kemetic Reconstructionism ("Kemet" is the ancient word for Egypt) is a form of reconstructionist Neopagan religion that seeks to recreate ancient Egyptian religion as accurately as possible, based primarily on the latest research of Egyptologists.

Cultural and linguistic adaptions are made to ancient beliefs and rituals in order to preserve their meaning for modern followers, but eclecticism and adaptation is generally rejected in favor of authenticity.

Followers are referred to as Kemetic Reconstructionists or Kemetics.

Organization and Priesthood

There are many Kemetic organizations, but also a good number of Kemetic reconstructionists who are not part of any specific organization. Membership in an organization is not compulsory to worship the ancient Egyptian gods.

The largest Kemetic organization is the House of Netjer or Kemetic Orthodoxy, founded in the late 1980s by Tamara L. Siuda. It gained official recognition in the U.S. as a religion in 1994. Siuda underwent her coronation as Nisut-Bity (Pharaoh) in 1996 through ceremonies performed in Egypt, and is now known formally within her faith as "Her Holiness, Sekhenet-Ma'at-Ra setep-en-Ra Hekatawy I, Nisut-Bity of the Kemetic Orthodox faith." (See below for more on the role of Pharoah.) In 2000 Siuda earned a master's degree in Egyptology. The House of Netjer is headquarted at the Tawy House temple in Joliet, Illinois, and followers of the faith around the world correspond via the internet.

Several Kemetic temples and organizations maintain Egyptian-style priesthoods, with a hierarchy of part-time and full-time priests in addition to a chief priest embodied in the pharaoh or ruler. These organizations include the Kemetic Orthodox House of Netjer, Per-Ankh, the Church of the Eternal Source, the Akhet Hwt-Hrw and the Nuhati-am-Nutjeru, among other lesser-known groups.

Some Kemetics maintain, in keeping with the reconstructionist ideal, that the existence of a living Pharaoh (a Hebrew word; the Egyptian term is Nisut) is still required. This idea is rooted in an ancient belief that a "land without kingship" was a land that had lost its connection to Ma'at, and that the Pharaoh was a priest-king, the servant of both the gods and the people of Egypt. The largest Kemetic group, the House of Netjer, recognizes its founder, Egyptologist Rev. Tamara Siuda, as Nisut.

Other Kemetic organizations reject this idea, citing the abuse of power that could occur with a modern Pharoah. Instead, they recognize the Egyptian idea of kingship as a symbolic meeting of men and their gods and fulfill it by means of councils such as were convened in ancient Egypt during times of civil war or times of unrest when the line of normal kingly succession was not clear.

Beliefs

Kemetic Reconstructionists honor the ancient Egyptian gods, whom they call by their original Egyptian names rather than the more familiar Greek forms. These gods include:

• Amun
• Anubis
• Bast
• Bes
• Hathor (Egyptian name: Het-heru, Het-hert, or Hwt-hru)
• Horus (Hor or Heru)
• Isis (Aset, Iset, Ast, or Auset)
• Khonsu
• Khnum
• Ma'at
• Nepthys
• Osiris (Ausar, Asar, or Wesir)
• Ra
• Sekhmet
• Set
• Thoth

How these Gods are viewed depends on the individual belief. Polytheism is the most common form, in both ancient and modern forms of the religion. From this perspective, all the gods are understood as individual beings and are worshiped as individuals.

Many Kemetic Reconstructionists, including members of the large House of Netjer, define their form of polytheism as monolatry, a term coined by Egyptologists. This means that the many individual deities are regarded as parts of an ultimately unknowable self-created Oneness, known in ancient texts as Netjer, "being of divine power," or as Atum, "the complete one/the one who is not."

The ancient Egyptians had a variety of different myths to describe Earth's creation, which are meaningful to modern Kemetics despite their own (usually) scientific view of creation.

Views of Kermetics about the afterlife can vary significantly. Some Kemetic Reconstructionists accept the ancient Egyptian view of the afterlife, while others believe in reincarnation or hold other views. The ancient Egyptians saw the afterlife as a journey through several "tests," the climax of which is the Weighing of the Heart, in which the heart is weighed against an ostrich feather (Feather of Ma'at).

If the heart is too heavy with sin, it is fed to the monster-goddess Ammit and the person is destroyed forever. Those who pass this test become Akhu, or Blessed Ancestors. They reside in Duat, the land of Osiris, and can be communicated with by humans on Earth. If a person flees judgement or gets lost on the way, he or she may become a Muet, or angry dead person, terrorizing living descendants.

Ethics

Kemetic ethics are based in the Egyptian concept of Ma'at, which is truth, justice, order, and "that which is right." In addition, Kemetics look to ancient Egyptian law texts such as the Declaration of Innocence (also called the "Negative Confessions"), which contain a list of 42 sins a deceased person claims not to have done, and the Wisdom Texts, which are pieces of advice written by Ancient Egyptians.

The Declaration of Innocence includes such sins as murder, muddying the rivers of the Nile river, adultery, theft, eavesdropping, and sexual perversion. This last sin is often translated in older texts as committing homosexuality, but Kemetic Reconstructionists consider this a mistranslation and are open to homosexual members. A common theory is that the prohibition refers to child prostitution.

Practices

The most common form of religious ritual in Kermetic Reconstructionism is informal offerings and prayers at a personal shrine. A person may also adapt various community priestly rituals from ancient Egypt to be done by one person.

The Egyptians believed that for a person to survive death indefinitely, he or she must be remembered. The person's name and/or image must be remembered past death, which is the reason mummification was used. Mummification is not practiced by modern Kermetics, since photographs and other records are sufficient to preserve a deceased person's memory. Many Kermetics have an Akhu shrine, dedicated to the "blessed dead," for this purpose.

There are several Kermetic festivals every month, and in some months there is almost a festival for every day. As in ancient Egypt, worshipers can choose which to celebrate, based usually on location, temple affiliation, and personal devotion to a particular deity. But a few major holidays are celebrated by most Kermetics regardless of their temple affiliation (most temples have official calendars) or independent status:

• Wep Ronpet, the Kemetic New Year
• Feast of Opet
• Feast of the Beautiful Valley
• Solstice Celebrations and Equinox Celebrations (sacred to Hathor, Eye of Ra)
• Feast of the Beautiful Reunion
• Full and New Moon Celebrations (sacred to various moon gods depending on the season)
• the birthdays and festival days of various gods and goddesses

The Ritual of the Senut or the Daily Rite is a Kemetic Orthodox ritual written in the early 1990s by Rev. Tamara Siuda, based upon a basic daily ritual practiced in the formal temples of antiquity and is partially translated into modern languages from those ancient rituals to that effect. The Senut, from an ancient word meaning "shrine," is given freely to all Kemetic Orthodox and is intended to be performed once daily whenever possible. Other Kemetic temples, such as Per-Ankh, often refer to their forms of this ritual as the "Daily Rite."

There are no formal rites of passage for solitary Kemetics, but the Kemetic Orthodox faith has developed specific rites of passage adapted from the spirit and tradition of ancient rites. Some of these have caused controversy among other Kemetic religionists, while others that have been adopted by them. These include Rootnaming, in which a child born to Kemetic parents is given an additional name indicating the god of his/her month of birth (e.g. Setneb for the month of Set), and the Rite of Parent Divination, a divination ritual performed for adult converts or children at puberty.

Sources

1. Kemetic Reconstructionism - Wikipedia
2. Kemetic Orthodoxy (House of Netjer) - official website
   • Tawy House - official website

Judaism Religion

Instructing the next generation in Torah, at the Western Wall in Jerusalem. Photo © Damon Lynch.

"It has been estimated that one-third of our Western civilization bears the marks of its Jewish ancestry.... The real impact of the ancient Jews lies in the extent to which Western civilization took over their angle of vision on the deepest questions life poses." -- Huston Smith, The World's Religions

Judaism is one of the oldest religions still existing today. It began as the religion of the small nation of the Hebrews, and through thousands of years of suffering, persecution, dispersion, and occasional victory, has continued to be a profoundly influential religion and culture. Today, 14 million people identify themselves as Jewish. Modern Judaism is a complex phenomenon that incorporates both a nation and a religion, and often combines strict adherence to ritual laws with a more liberal attitude towards religious belief. Follow a link below to learn more about Judaism.

Jehovah's Witnesse

Jehovah's Witnesses are known for active evangelism and the Watchtower.

"Jehovah's Witnesses are members of a worldwide Christian religion who actively share with others information about God, whose name is Jehovah, and about his Son, Jesus Christ. They base their beliefs solely on the principles found in the Holy Bible and view first-century Christianity as their model." -- Office of Public Information of Jehovah's Witnesses

The group now known as the Jehovah's Witnesses was founded in 1879 by Charles Taze Russell, a Pennsylvania businessman. Russell's Adventist background and study of the Bible led him to conclude, among other things, that the second coming of Christ would occur in 1914, that Hellfire did not exist, and God was not a Trinity. Today, there are 6.4 million practicing Jehovah's Witnesses worldwide. Witnesses are very active in evangelism and missions, both in the group's original home of the United States and throughout the world.

Jehovah's Witnesses adhere to Russell's teachings on Hell and the Trinity and emphasize the immanent End Times, clean and moral living, the equality of all races, and adherence to the teachings of the Bible. They reject blood transfusions because of the New Testament command to "abstain from blood" and do not vote or serve in the military. Witnesses reject the symbol of the cross, do not celebrate any traditional Christian holidays, and do not celebrate birthdays.

Islam Religion

A Muslim pilgrim in Mecca, Saudi Arabia. Photo: Ali Mansuri.

"Righteous is he who believes in Allah and the Last Day and the Angels and the Scriptures and the Prophets." -- Qur'an 2:177

Islam is a monotheistic religion based on revelations received by the Prophet Muhammad in the 7th century, which were later recorded in the Qur'an (Koran), Islam's sacred text. The faith spread rapidly and today Islam is the second largest religion in the world. The Arabic word islam means "submission," reflecting the religion's central tenet of submitting to the will of God. Islamic practices are defined by the Five Pillars of Islam: faith, prayer, fasting, pilgrimage and alms. Follow a link below to learn more about Islam.

Hinduism Religion

Puja offerings on the Hindu holiday of Diwali. Photo: GFDL.

"When you hear about the Self, meditate upon the Self, and finally realize the Self... you come to understand everything in life." --Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 4.5

Hinduism is an ancient religion with no founder or known date of origin. The term "Hinduism" simply derives from the word "India" and refers to a wide variety of religious traditions and philosophies that have developed in India over thousands of years. Most Hindus worship one or more deities, believe in reincarnation, value the practice of meditation, and observe festive holidays like Diwali and Holi. Learn more about Hinduism by selecting a topic below.

Hare Krisna (ISKON)

Hare Krishna is the popular name for the International Society of Krishna Consciousness (or ISKCON), a new religious movement based in Hinduism.

Established in America in 1965, the Hare Krishna worship the Hindu god Krishna as the one Supreme God. Their goal is "Krishna consciousness" and their central practice is chanting the Hare Krishna mantra for which they are named.

Fast Facts

Founded:	1965 in New York and San Francisco, USA
Founder:	His Divine Grace A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada
Adherents:	250,000 devotees plus 10,000 full members [according to ISKCON]; other sources say there are 1 million total
Texts:	Bhagavad Gita as translated by the founder
Theism:	Monotheistic (based in Hindu theism) belief in Krishna
Practices:	Asceticism, celibacy, vegetarianism, abstinence from drugs and alcohol, chanting, evangelism

History

His Divine Grace A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada. Photo © Bhaktivedanta Book Trust.

ISKCON has its historical roots in the Caitanya (or Gaudiya) movement of Hinduism, which began around 1510 with an ascetic who took the name Sri Krishna Caitanya. This devotee of Krishna became renowned for his ecstatic devotion, expressed in dance and song. His disciples believed Caitanya to be manifestation of Krishna himself, and established a movement based on his inspiration.

The International Society for Krishna Conciousness (ISKCON) is a modern movement within this tradition. It was founded by His Divine Grace A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada (1896-1977), a devotee of Krishna, upon his arrival to America from India in 1965. Prabhupada was born in Calcutta and was 70 years old when he arrived in New York City. Prabhupada moved to the Haight Ashbury district of San Francisco in 1967, where he soon gained many followers.

The movement spread quickly, and became one of the most visible of the new religious movements that came from the East in the 1960s and 70s. ISKCON gained further publicity (and financial support) through the interest of the Beatle George Harrison. The first Hare Krishna commune was established by Prabhupada as "New Vrindavan" in West Virginia in 1968.

In 1970, Prabhupada established the Governing Board Commission (GBC) to help him administer the movement. After Prabhupada's death in 1977, 11 of his disciples became initiating gurus. Three of these are still active Hare Krishna teachers.

The Hare Krishna came under criticism during the anti-cult movement in the 1970s and 1980s, and still remains under the watchful eye of anti-cult organizations today. The identification of ISKCON as a cult is usually based on the abuses committed by some of its leaders and allegations by some former members of brainwashing and isolation from family and friends.

In 1998, the organization published an official report detailing abuse of children in ISKCON boarding schools in the US and India in the 70s and 80s. The movement was sued by a number of former students and actively sought to identify victims who had not sued in order to compensate them as well.

To prevent future abuses, ISKCON has established a worldwide child protection office to screen out actual or potential abusers and educate children and adults on child abuse, and has made other organizational changes to increase the transparency and accountability of ISKCON leadership.

Hare Krishna sacred text

Texts

The most important sacred text for the Hare Krishna is the Hindu text Bhagavad Gita, the "Song of the Lord," written around 250 BC. Beloved also by Gandhi and nearly all Hindus, the Gita tells the story of the warrior Arjuna and his encounter with Krishna. This text is regarded as literal truth by Hare Krishnas.

Specifically, Hare Krishnas use and distribute the translation by Prabhupada, The Bhagavad Gita As It Is, which includes an extensive commentary by the founder.

Beliefs

ISKCON identifies itself with Hindu Vedic philsophy and Vaishanvism (devotion to Vishnu). Its beliefs are especially rooted in the Bhagavad Gita (see Texts, above) and the teachings of the founder, Prabhupada. Most mainstream Hindus accept the Hare Krishna as an authentic sect within Hinduism.

Hare Krishnas teach that we are living in an evil age, the age of Kali, but can attain salvation and a "return to Godhead" by means of permanent Krishna-consciousness. Krishna-consciousness can be accomplished through ethical living and the "Hare Krishna" chant (see Practices, below).

Krishna. Image © Bhaktivedanta Book Trust

This salvation is accomplished by Bhakti-yoga, the "way of devotion." The object of ISKCON devotion is Krishna, a manifestation of Vishnu and a beloved deity in mainstream Hinduism as well. As seen above, the Hare Krishna describe themselves as monotheists, who worship the Supreme Godhead in the personality of Krishna. They also believe that the Supreme God is known by other names, such as Yahweh and Allah.

According to ISKCON's official website:

The mission of this nonsectarian, monotheistic movement is to promote the well being of society by teaching the science of Krishna consciousness according to Bhagavad-gita and other ancient scriptures. [1]

More specifically, Prabhupada identified the following Seven Purposes of ISKCON:

1. To systematically propagate spiritual knowledge to society at large and to educate all people in the techniques of spiritual life in order to check the imbalance of values in life and to achieve real unity and peace in the world.
2. To propagate a consciousness of Krishna (God), as it is revealed in the great scriptures of India, Bhagavad-gita and Srimad-Bhagavatam.
3. To bring the members of the Society together with each other and nearer to Krishna, the prime entity, thus developing the idea within the members, and humanity at large, that each soul is part and parcel of the quality of Godhead (Krishna).

Hare Krishna dancing in Soho, London. Photo: Aaron Morton.

4. To teach and encourage the sankirtana movement, congregational chanting of the holy name of God, as revealed in the teachings of Lord Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu.
5. To erect for the members and for society at large a holy place of transcendental pastimes dedicated to the personality of Krishna.
6. To bring the members closer together for the purpose of teaching a simpler, more natural way of life.
7. With a view towards achieving the aforementioned purposes, to publish and distribute periodicals, magazines, books and other writings. [1]

Practices

"Congregational members" of ISKCON put the movement's teachings about Krishna consciousness into practice while living a normal home and work life. They attend temples for congregational worship.

"Temple-based" or full members of the Hare Krishna movement live in temples and are expected to lead austere and ascetic lifestyles in which they follow these four regulative principles:

• eat no meat, fish, or eggs;
• drink no alcohol and take no drugs (including caffeine);
• do not gamble, and
• remain celibate except for purposes of procreation within marriage.

The reason for these prohibitions is that "indulgence in the aforementioned activities disrupts physical, mental and spiritual well-being, and increases anxiety and conflict in society." [1]

The central religious ritual of the Hare Krishna is the chanting of mantras. Their main mantra (maha-mantra) for which they are named is:

Hare Krishna, Hare Krishna,
Krishna Krishna, Hare Hare,
Hare Rama, Hare Rama,
Rama Rama, Hare Hare

This mantra expresses devotion to the gods Hare, Krishna and Rama and is believed to bring about a higher state of consciousness when it is chanted, sung, or meditated upon. It is thought to be the most effective means of self-purification. Hare Krishnas are expected to chant the mantra for 16 rounds of a rosary of 108 beads (i.e. 1,728 times) every day.

Hare Krishna singing and dancing in London. Photo: Esther Simpson.

Hare Krishnas are also known for their public singing and dancing and distribution of materials including their magazine, Back to Godhead. ISKCON is actively evangelistic, with the goal of spreading God-consciousness throughout the world.

Male Hare Krishnas dress in white or saffron robes and shave their head except for a topknot. Women wear brightly colored saris.

The movement's leaders are gurus in a successive lineage that is traced back to Caitanya himself. The job of the guru is to pass on the teachings unchanged to a disciple, who then carries on the line to others.

References & Sources

1. Official Website of ISKCON
2. International Society of Krishna Conciousness - Religious Movements Homepage
3. John Hinnels, ed., "Hare Krishna Movement." Penguin Dictionary of Religions (1997).
4. John Bowker, ed., "International Society of Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON)." Oxford Concise Dictionary of World Religions (2000).

Ancient Greek Religion

"Whoever obeys the gods, to him they particularly listen."
--Homer, The Iliad
Although the religion of the ancient Greeks is virtually extinct in its original form, it lives on in the cultures, imaginations, and even the religions of the modern western world. This section of ReligionFacts explores the beliefs, practices and history of religion in the world of Ancient Greece. Our articles focus primarily on Greek religious belief and ritual, but they include Greek philosophy as well. In the ancient world, "religion" and "philosophy" were not completely distinct entities, and the beliefs of the average Greek might have been influenced both by traditional beliefs about the gods and ideas derived from the teachings of the philsophers. In addition, the teachings of philosophers like Plato and Socrates deal with the subjects we often group under "religious" today - the meaning of life, the existence of an afterlife, the nature of the universe, and God or gods.

Falun Gong Religion

Falun Gong (Chinese, "Practice of the Wheel of Dharma") is a Chinese movement founded by Li Hongzhi in 1992. Its adherents exercise ritually to obtain mental and spiritual renewal.

The teachings of Falun Gong draw from the Asian religious traditions of Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism and Chinese folklore as well as those of Western New Age movements.

The movement's sudden emergence in the 1990s was a great concern to the Chinese government, which viewed Falun Gong as a cult and a threat.

Master Li Hongzhi. (FalunDafa.org)

Fast Facts

• Date founded: 1992
• Place founded: China
• Founder: Li Hongzhi (1951/2-)
• Adherents: 3 million (acc. to official sources); 100 million (acc. to Falun Gong sources)

Terminology

Falun Gong is also known as Falun Dafa. Technically, Falun Gong refers to the practice, while Falun Dafa refers to the teaching of the movement, but the terms are now generally used interchangably.

Falun Gong has claimed not to be an organization and its texts speak of it as a practice rather than a religion. But it does contain teachings about the spiritual world and it has a closely connected membership (achieved in large part through the internet). 1

History

Falun Gong has its origins in Qi Gong (Chinese: "Energy Working"), the use of meditation techniques and physical exercise to achieve good health and peace of mind, which has a long history in Chinese culture and religion. However, practitioners in modern China present these techniques as purely secular in an effort to escape official restrictions against independent religious activity.

But in the late 20th century, new masters appeared who taught forms of Qi Gong more clearly rooted in religion. The most influential of these, Li Hongzhi (born May 13, 1951, according to followers, or July 7, 1952, according to critics who contend that Li adjusted his birthdate to be the same as the Buddha's), worked in law enforcement and corporate security before becoming the full-time spiritual leader of Falun Gong in 1992.

After gathering a large following in China (100 million according to Falun Gong, or between 2 and 3 million according to the Chinese government), Li took his movement abroad in the mid-1990s, settling permanently in New York City in 1998. The next year, a massive campaign was launched by the medical establishment (including both practitioners and academics) and the Chinese government to denounce Falun Gong as a xiejiao ("false teching" or "cult").

Unlike other Chinese organizations, Falun Gong responded strongly, staging a demonstration of more than 10,000 followers in Beijing on April 25, 1999, which prompted an even greater government response. The movement was condemned and outlawed by the Chinese authorities, who identified Falun Gong as the latest of many Chinese religious societies that have combined religious assurance with political dissent. In October the enforcement of a new anticult law led to the arrest of 100 Falun Gong leaders (joining 1,000 members who had been arrested earlier). Public trials began in November and continued into the 21st century, with many defendants receiving prison sentences of up to 12 years. 2

While the Chinese government gained the cooperation of some Western anticult groups in its campaign to expose Falun Gong as a "cult," it was also criticized by human rights organizations who denounce the suspicious deaths, allegedly by accident, of some Falun Gong members detained in Chinese jails. According to FalunDafa.org, "To date [December 2005], there are more than 2794 documented cases of otherwise healthy practitioners being beaten and tortured to death while in detention."

In the meantime, Falun Gong has attracted followers from around the world, and Master Li claimed in 2002 that the spread of Falun Dafa for 10 years had averted major cosmic catastrophes. 3

Texts

The main text of Falun Gong is Li Hongzhi's book, Zhuan Falun (Turning the Law Wheel). There is also a book for beginners by Li Hongzhi called Falun Gong.

Beliefs and Practices

According to a Falun Gong website,

Falun Dafa is a practice that has brought better health and inner peace to millions around the world. We call it a cultivation practice: "cultivation" refers to the improvement of one's heart and mind through the careful study of universal principles based on truthfulness, benevolence, and forbearance; "practice" means doing exercises and meditation to energize the body. 4

While in traditional Chinese Buddhism falun means the "wheel of law" or "wheel of dharma," Li uses the word to indicate the center of spiritual energy in the human body (akin to a chakra). He locates the falun in the lower abdomen and teaches that it can be awakened (or "installed") through a set of exercises called Xiu Lian ("Cultivating and Practicing"). This dispels karma that causes illness, and thus can cure and prevent disease.

The Falun is regarded as a microcosm of the universe; once it is installed into the abdomen, it rotates continuously. When the falun turns clockwise, it absorbs energy from the universe into the body; when it turns counter-clockwise it eliminates waste from the body. Some Falun Gong practitioners whose "celestial eye" (tianmu) is open, can see the falun, which looks like the Falun Gong symbol (see below).

Unlike other Qi Gong groups, Falun Gong insists that its founder is the only authoritative source for determining the correct exercises and that a spiritual discipline, the "cultivation of the Xinxing" ("Mind-Nature"), is essential to the success of the exercises.

The practice of Falun Gong consists of five exercises, four standing and one sitting, which involve meditation and slow movements. Falun Gong practitioners also "study the universal principles of truthfulness, benevolence, and tolerance." 4

On a more esoteric level, Li also teaches that demonic space aliens seek to destroy humanity and, since their arrival in 1900, have manipulated scientists and world leaders. 5 Critics of the movement not only ridicule such claims but regard its reliance on Xiu Lian as an alternative to official medicine as hazardous to the members' health. The Chinese government claims that 1,400 Falun Gong devotees have died as a result of this alleged rejection of modern medicine. 2

Symbols

The Falun Gong symbol or "Falun Emblem" (left) is a representation of the falun itself and also a miniature of the universe. It is the pattern that those with supernormal capabilities always see in the falun (though its colors can vary). It consists of five swastikas and four yin-yang symbols within two concentric circles. It is intended to appear as if it is rotating, as the falun always is.

The swastikas represent "the Buddha School" and are also traditional Chinese symbols of good fortune. Moreover, Li teaches that

a swastika signifies a Buddha's level and "the higher a Buddha's status, the more symbols a Buddha has." The four yin-yang symbols (Taiji) represent the "Tao School." Their color has special significance, which Li explains this way:

What we generally understand is that Taiji is made of the two substances of black and white, the qi of yin and yang. That notion comes from a very low level, as Taiji has different manifestations in different dimensions. At the highest level, its colors manifest in this way. The Tao that we commonly understand has this red color at the top and this black color at the bottom. For instance, some of our practitioners’ tianmu [third eyes] are open, and they have discovered that the red color they see with their flesh eyes is green in the adjacent dimension. In other words, colors change from dimension to dimension. The Taiji with the red color at the top and the blue color at the bottom belongs to the Great Pre-Taoism, which includes the cultivation practices from the Qimen School. 6

References & Sources

1. "Falun Gong." John Bowker, ed., The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions (2000).
2. Massimo Introvigne, "Falun Gong." Encyclopædia Britannica Encyclopædia Britannica Premium Service, 2005.
3. "The Blessings from Dafa." Published on FalunDafa.org.
4. FalunDafa.org (2005).
5. Encyclopædia Britannica. See also "Interview with Li Hongzhi," Time Asia, May 10, 1999
6. "The Falun Emblem." Excerpt from the Zhuan Falun at FalunDafa.org.