Stoicism Religion

Stoicism was one of the two principal schools of the Hellenistic era (the other being Epicureanism). Originally founded by Zeno in 4th-century-BC Athens, Stoicism later developed and changed into forms designated "Middle Stoa" and "Later Stoa," also known as Roman Stoicism. This article deals with primarily with original, Greek Stoicism.

History

Stoicism was founded by Zeno of Citium (Cyprus), who was born in 335 BC and came to Athens around 313 BC. According to tradition, Zeno had studied under the Cynics, but some later Stoics (e.g. Panaetius) were embarrassed by this connection and denied it. At Athens, Zeno began teaching philosophy in the Stoa Poikile (the Painted Porch, hence "Stoicism"). He taught the scientific study of Greek grammar and vocabulary and developed a complete philosophical system of three branches: logic; physics and theology; and ethics. He taught that the goal of life is virtue; everything else is indifferent.

Zeno's successor was Cleanthes of Assos (331-232 BC), who became head of the school in 263 BC. He developed Zeno's materialistic worldview in a more religious direction. He compared the universe to a human being, and the realm of fixed stars to the soul. Both were the greater concentration of spirit in their respective realms, and the stars could therefore be worshipped. He also emphasized the universal law of providence. Cleanthes is best known for his Hymn to Zeus, which movingly describes Stoic reverence for the cosmic order and the power of universal reason and law.

Chrysippus of Soli (Cilicia) (c.280-207 BC) took over the Stoa in 232. He attempted to show that Homer and Hesiod were really Stoics, which gave impetus to the practice of allegorizing. Through him Stoicism assumed a more academic and technical character, and this was the form in which it was largely transmitted in the ancient world. The teachings of Zeno and Cleanthes were absorbed into Chrysippus to the extent that it is difficult to separate them.

The teachings of the above exponents of the Early Stoa were later modified by others. The two important figures of the Middle Stoa are Panaetius (c.185-109 BC) and Posidonius (c.135-c.50 BC). Important teachers of the Later Stoa include Seneca (c.1-65 AD), whose Stoicism was tempered by eclecticism and more religious sentiments, and Epictetus (c.55-c.135 AD), whose ideas are preserved in the Discourses and the Enchiridion.

Marcus Aurelius (121-80 AD), the Roman emperor, was the last of the great Stoics. Stoicism died out, as the popular saying goes, "because everyone became a Stoic." Everything Stoicism had to say became common property in Late Antiquity, and what was of value was absorbed into the Neoplatonic synthesis.

Texts

None of the writings of the three earliest leaders of Stoicism has survived intact; we have only fragments and quotations. See Books, below, for bibliography.

Beliefs

The Stoics taught materialism, in which everything - including God and words - is material. Even emotions are material because they have physical manifestations (e.g. blushing, smiling).

Their worldview was also pantheistic, in which a divine reality pervades the universe. They taught there are two kinds of matter: the grosser matter that is seen and touched and the finer matter called breath or spirit that holds everything together. It was given various names: logos (reason), pneuma (breath), pronoia (providence), Zeus, or fire (the element considered most akin to reason). The Stoic god has thus been described as a "perfectly good and wise gas." 1

The Stoics sought to find their theories in the ancient mythology, using the allegorical method of interpretation to do so. The gods did not actually do the things attributed to them; these were descriptions of natural events. One technique was to rearrange letters to find true meaning; for example: Hera (ERA) becomes air (AER); DEMETER becomes GE METER (Earth Mother). This method was later adopted by the Jewish philosopher Philo of Alexandria, and through him, by the Christian philosophers Clement and Origen of Alexandria.

Human nature incorporates both of these kinds of matter in the body and the soul, respectively. The soul was believed to stretch throughout the body and have eight parts: the five senses, voice, generative power, and the "leading power" of the mind, which was located in the heart. (Later Stoics, because of advances in medicine, placed it in the head.)

The universe is like a giant living body with its own leading part (the stars or the sun). All parts are interconnected, thus what happens in one place affects what happens elsewhere. In addition, everything in the universe was predetermined. This world is the best of all possible worlds, developed by the logos down to the smallest detail. These concepts justified the continued use of divination and oracles.

At the same time, Stoicism upheld human free will. This apparent paradox was explained with the illustration of a river with eddies in its current. We are all being carried down the river to perfection; the eddies are free will when it resists. But since one is going to be swept along regardless, and it is the best way anyway, it is better to voluntarily "go with the flow."

The Stoics held a cyclical view of history, in which the world was once fire and would become fire again. The cycle of conflagration will then be repeated. Since this is the best of all possible worlds, each world cycle is exactly the same - Socrates will teach again, you will read this web page again.

The goal of life for the Stoics was happiness, which is found only through the pursuit of virtue. Virtue alone can give happiness because it cannot be taken away by any external circumstances. "Virtue" means living in accordance with nature, and the rational principle (logos) pervades nature. Thus to live virtuously means to live reasonably. "Sin" thus derives from ignorance, not evil or ill will. The Stoics taught that once one has the power to live in accordance with reason, this power of is never lost. Thus everyone is either wise or foolish, not in between. For obvious reasons, the Stoic "wise man" soon became seen as an ideal to which none actually attain.

Since only virtue/reason matters, everything is predetermined and perfect, and reason is distorted by passion and emotion, the wise Stoic is indifferent to everything but virtue, not distressed by external circumstances, and avoids passion and emotion. This has given rise to the modern meaning of "stoic" to describe an emotionless or apathetic person. But the Stoics did not reject emotions altogether, but sought to avoid emotional troubles by developing clear judgment and inner calm through logic, reflection, and concentration. In ancient times, "passion" conveyed the idea of suffering (i.e. Christ's Passion) rather than emotion.

Stoicism developed a strong tradition of human equality and brotherhood, for all people are manifestations of the one universal spirit. Thus they should live in brotherly love and help one another and external differences such as rank and wealth are of no importance in social relationships.

Many of the above concepts can be seen in the following passage from Marcus Aurelius (a later Stoic), in his famous Meditations:

Say to yourself in the early morning: I shall meet today ungrateful, violent, treacherous, envious, uncharitable men. All of these things have come upon them through ignorance of real good and ill... I can neither be harmed by any of them, for no man will involve me in wrong, nor can I be angry with my kinsman or hate him; for we have come into the world to work together...

The Stoics did not have a clear conception of an afterlife. Some held that the soul survives until the next conflagration; others taught that the soul is part of the World Soul and would reappear in the new world. But a personal immortality was not part of the Stoic worldview.

References and Sources

1. Everett Ferguson, Backgrounds of Early Christianity, 3rd ed. (Eerdmans, 2003), 357.
2. "Stoicism." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2005. Encyclopædia Britannica Premium Service.
3. Stoicism - The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy

Sikhism Religion

A Sikh at the Golden Temple of Amritsar, Punjab. Photo: Claude Renault.

"A Sikh is any woman or man whose faith consists of belief in one God, the ten Gurus, the teachings of the Guru Granth Sahib and of the ten Gurus, who has faith in the amrit of the tenth Guru, and who adheres to no other religion."
--Rahit Maryada

Sikhism emerged in 16th-century India in an environment heavily permeated with conflicts between the Hindu and Muslim religions. Its founding teacher, Guru Nanak Dev, was born in 1469 to a Hindu family. His most famous saying was, "There is no Hindu, there is no Muslim, so whose path shall I follow? I shall follow the path of God." Today, there are about 23 million Sikhs worldwide, making Sikhism the fifth largest religion in the world. Follow a link below to learn more.

Sikhism Basics One-Page Overview , Facts and Stats, Glossary of Sikhism, Timeline of Sikhism Sikh History Life of Guru Nanak, The Ten Gurus Sikh Beliefs Religious Authority, God, Karma & Reincarnation, Khalsa and State

Sikh Holidays Diwali, Guru Gobind Singh's Birthday, Guru Nanak's Birthday, Hola Maholla, Maghi, Vaisakhi Sikh Things Guru Granth Sahib, Chauri (Whisk), The Five Ks, Nishan Sahib (Flag) Sikhism Features A Sikh Thanksgiving in Quee

Shinto Religion

Shinto (also Shintoism) is the term for the indigenous religious beliefs and practices of Japan. Shinto has no founder, no official sacred scriptures, and no fixed creeds, but it has preserved its main beliefs and rituals throughout the ages.

Bride and groom at a Shinto wedding
held at Meiji Shrine in Tokyo, Japan.
Photo: Chee Weng Tan.



Floating torii at Miyajima. Photo: Matt Watts.



The beautiful Mt. Fuji, a sacred Shinto mountain. Photo under GFDL.



Japanese boy dressed up for the Shichi- go-san (Seven-Five-Three) festival on November 15. Photo: Nathan Duckworth.



Wooden torii at Meiji Shrine, Tokyo.
Photo under GFDL.



The most common Shinto symbol, which represents a torii (shrine gate).



The Shinto fox god Kitsune, who is the messenger of Inari, the god of rice.
Photo: David Gardiner Garcia.



Shinto priests in procession.
Photo: Chris Fry.

The word Shinto, which comes from the Chinese shin tao, meaning "the way of kami", came into use in order to distinguish indigenous Japanese beliefs from Buddhism, which had been introduced into Japan in the 6th century AD.

Shinto (together with Buddhism) is intimately tied to Japanese society and culture. Shinto's relationship with other religions in Japan are generally cooperative and harmonious. Shintoists insist on maintaining their own characteristics and inner depth while working toward the peaceful coexistence of human beings.

Fast Facts

Founded:	No known date or founder. Shinto is the indigenous religion of Japan.
Adherents:	3-4 million
Texts:	Kojiki (Records of Ancient Matters); Nihongi or Nihon shoki (Chronicles of Japan)
Beliefs:	Polytheism based on the kami, ancient gods or spirits.
Practices:	Worship and offerings to kami at shrines and at home. Purification rituals.

History

Shinto has no founder or founding date. When the Japanese people and Japanese culture became aware of themselves, Shinto was already there. Yayoi culture, which originated in the northern area of the island of Kyushu around the 3rd or 2nd century BC, is directly related to later Japanese culture and Shinto. Among the primary Yayoi religious phenomena were agricultural rites and shamanism. Early shamans (miko) performed the ceremonies; eventually those of the Yamato tribe did so on behalf of the other tribes and their chieftain assumed duties that led to headship of the Shinto state.

Confucianism reached Japan in the 5th century AD, and by the 7th century it had spread among the people together with Chinese Taoism and yin-yang (harmony of two basic forces of nature) philosophy. All of these stimulated the development of Shinto ethical teachings. With the gradual centralization of political power, Shinto began to develop as a national cult as well. Shinto became political by the 8th century when Yamato writers ascribed divine origins to the imperial family and so claimed legitmacy for rule. By the beginning of the 10th century, about 3,000 shrines throughout Japan were receiving state offerings.

Buddhism was officially introduced into Japan in AD 552 and developed gradually. In the 8th century there emerged tendencies to interpret Shinto from a Buddhist viewpoint. Shinto kami were viewed as protectors of Buddhism; hence shrines for tutelary kami were built within the precincts of Buddhist temples.

Shinto kami were made equivalent to deva (the Buddhist Sanskrit term for “gods”) who rank highest in the Realm of Ignorance, according to Buddhist notions. By the late 8th century kami were thought to be incarnations of buddhas and bodhisattvas. Bodhisattva names were given to kami, and Buddhist statues were placed even in the inner sanctuaries of Shinto shrines. In some cases, Buddhist priests were in charge of the management of Shinto shrines.

From the beginning of the Kamakura period (1192–1333), theories of Shinto-Buddhist amalgamation were formulated. The most important of the syncretic schools to emerge were Ryobu (Dual Aspect) Shinto and Sanno ("King of the Mountain") Shinto. The anti-Buddhist Ise or Watarai Shinto appeared in the city of Ise during the 13th century as a reaction against the Shinto-Buddhist amalgamation; it attempted to exclude Buddhist accretions and also tried to formulate a pure Japanese version.

In 1603 the Tokugawa shogunate was founded in Edo (Tokyo), and contact between Shinto and Confucianism was resumed. Scholars tried to interpret Shinto from the standpoint of Neo-Confucianism, emphasizing the unity of Shinto and Confucian teachings. Schools emerged based on the teachings of the Chinese philosophers Chu Hsi and Wang Yang-ming, and Neo-Confucianism became an official subject of study for warriors.

Fukko (Restoration) Shinto began toward the end of the 17th century. Advocates of this school maintained that the norms of Shinto should not be sought in Buddhist or Confucian interpretations but in the beliefs and life-attitudes of their ancestors as clarified by philological study of the Japanese classics. Motoori Norinaga (1730–1801) represented this school. His emphasis was on the belief in musubi (the mystical power of becoming or of creation), which had been popular in ancient Shinto, and on a this-worldly view of life, which anticipated the eternal progress of the world in ever-changing mutations. These beliefs, together with the inculcation of respect for the Imperial line and the teaching of absolute faith—according to which all problems beyond human capability were turned over to kami—exercised great influence on modern Shinto doctrines.

In the early Meiji period (1868-1912), the religion was divided into Shrine Shinto (Jinja) and Sect Shinto (Kyoha). An Imperial Rescript on Education made it the formal foundation of the state. The divinity of the emperor was stressed, based on Confucian concepts of loyalty to the emperor and the state.

During the latter part of the 19th century, new religious movements emerged out of the social confusion and unrest of the people. What these new movements taught differed widely: some were based on mountain-worship groups, which were half Buddhist and half Shinto; some placed emphasis on purification and ascetic practices; and some combined Confucian and Shinto teachings. The new religious movements were based mostly on individual religious experiences and aimed at healing diseases or spiritual salvation. These sectarian Shinto groups, numbering 13 during the Meiji period (1868–1912), were stimulated and influenced by Restoration Shinto. They can be classified as follows:

1. Revival Shinto sects: Izumo-oyashiro-kyo (or Taisha-kyo), Shinto-taikyo, Shinri-kyo
2. Confucian sects: Shinto Shusei-ha, Shinto Taisei-kyo
3. Purification sects: Shinshu-kyo, Misogi-kyo
4. Mountain worship sects: Jikko-kyo, Fuso-kyo, On take-kyo (or Mitake-kyo)
5. "Faith-healing" sects: Kurozumi-kyo, Konko-kyo, Tenri-kyo

After the Second World War, Shinto lost its status as an official religion, shrine membership was not required and contributions became voluntary. The "nationalization" of Yasukuni shrine, home of the remains of war dead, is a current issue.

Texts

Shinto does not have any philosophical literature or official scripture that can be compared to texts like the Bible or the Qur'an. But the Kojiki (Records of Ancient Matters) and the Nihongi or Nihon shoki (Chronicles of Japan), are in a sense the sacred books of Shinto. They were written in AD 712 and 720, respectively, and are compilations of the oral traditions, mythology and ceremonies of ancient Shinto. But they are also books about the history, topography, and literature of ancient Japan.

Also important is the collection of 50 books known as Engishiki, completed in 927. These deal with the laws governing shrine ceremonies, the organization of religious leadership, and official prayers and liturgies.

Beliefs

At the core of Shinto are beliefs in the mysterious creating and harmonizing power (musubi) of kami and in the truthful way (makoto) of kami. The nature of kami cannot be fully explained in words, because kami transcends the cognitive faculty of man. Devoted followers, however, are able to understand kami through faith and usually recognize various kami in polytheistic form.

The kami began as the mysterious forces of nature associated primarily with permanent features in the landscape, such as unusual mountains, rocky cliffs, caves, springs, trees and stones. Many folk tales evolved around these holy places, which often refer to animal possession and chiefly involve foxes, badgers, dogs and cats betwitching people. Celestial bodies play only incidental roles as Shinto kami.

Today, parishioners of a shrine believe in their tutelary kami as the source of human life and existence. Each kami has a divine personality and responds to truthful prayers. The kami also reveals makoto to people and guides them to live in accordance with it. In traditional Japanese thought, truth manifests itself in empirical existence and undergoes transformation in infinite varieties in time and space. In Shinto all the deities are said to cooperate with one another, and life lived in accordance with a kami's will is believed to produce a mystical power that gains the protection, cooperation, and approval of all the particular kami.

Shinto holds a generally positive view of human nature. A common Shinto saying is that "man is kami's child." First, this means that a person was given his life by kami and that his nature is therefore sacred. In actuality, however, this divine nature is seldom revealed in man, which gives rise to the need for purification (see Practices, below). Second, it means that daily life is made possible by kami, and, accordingly, the personality and life of people are worthy of respect. An individual must revere the basic human rights of everyone as well as his own.

Shinto is described as a religion of tsunagari ("continuity or community"). The Japanese, while recognizing each man as an individual personality, do not take him as a solitary being separated from others. On the contrary, he is regarded as the bearer of a long, continuous history that comes down from his ancestors and continues in his descendants. He is also considered as a responsible member of various social groups.

Motoori Norinaga stated that the human world keeps growing and developing while continuously changing. Similarly, Japanese mythology speaks of an eternity of history in the divine edict of Amaterasu. In its view of history, Shinto adheres to the cyclical approach, according to which there is a constant recurrence of historical patterns. Shinto does not have the concept of the "last day": there is no end of the world or of history. From the viewpoint of finite individuals, Shintoists also stress naka-ima ("middle present"), which repeatedly appears in the Imperial edicts of the 8th century. According to this point of view, the present moment is the very center in the middle of all conceivable times. In order to participate directly in the eternal development of the world, it is required of Shintoists to live fully each moment of life, making it as worthy as possible.

Historically, the Shinto beliefs and rituals of each local community has played an important role in harmonizing different elements and powers. After the Meiji Restoration (1868), Shinto was used as a means of spiritually unifying the people during repeated wars. Since the end of World War II, the age-old desire for peace has been reemphasized. The General Principles of Shinto Life proclaimed by the Association of Shinto Shrines in 1956 has the following article: "In accordance with the Emperor's will, let us be harmonious and peaceful, and pray for the nation's development as well as the world's co-prosperity."

Practices

Shinto ceremonies are designed to appeal to the kami for benevolent treatment and protection and consist of abstinence (imi), offerings, prayers and purification (harae). Purification, by washing with water, symbolically removes the dust and impurities that cover one's inner mind.

A traditional Japanese home has two family altars: one, Shinto, for their tutelary kami and the goddess Amaterasu Omikami, and another, Buddhist, for the family ancestors. Pure Shinto families, however, will have all ceremonies and services in Shinto style.

Shinto does not have weekly religious services. Some may go to the shrines on the 1st and 15th of each month and on the occasions of rites or festivals (matsuri), which take place at fixed times during the year (see Holidays, below). Shinto followers visit the shrine at their convenience; though some devotees pay respect to the shrine every morning.

Shinto shrines are regarded as the home of the kami. The most important shrine building is the inner sanctuary (honden), in which a sacred symbol called shintai ("kami body") or mitama-shiro ("divine spirit's symbol") is enshrined. The usual symbol is a mirror, but sometimes it is a wooden image, a sword, or some other object. In any case, it is carefully wrapped and placed in a container. It is forbidden to see it: only the chief priest is allowed to enter inside the inner sanctuary.

A torii (gateway) stands at the entrance of shrine precincts. Proceeding on the main approach, a visitor comes to an ablution basin where the hands are washed and the mouth is rinsed. Usually he or she will make a small offering at the oratory (haiden) and pray. Sometimes a visitor may ask the priest to conduct rites of passage or to offer special prayers.

Various Shinto rites of passage are observed. The first visit of a newborn baby to the tutelary kami, which occurs 30 to 100 days after birth, is to initiate the baby as a new adherent. The Shichi-go-san (Seven-Five-Three) festival on November 15 is the occasion for boys of five years and girls of three and seven years of age to visit the shrine to give thanks for kami's protection and to pray for their healthy growth.

January 15 is Adults' Day. Youth in the village used to join the local young men's association on this day. At present it is the commemoration day for those Japanese who have attained their 20th year. The Japanese usually have their wedding ceremonies in Shinto style and pronounce their wedding vows to kami. Shinto funerals, however, are not common, due to Shinto concerns about ritual purity. The majority of the Japanese have their funerals in Buddhist style.

There are other Shinto rites for occupations or daily life, such as a ceremony of purifying a building site or for setting up the framework for a new building, a purifying ceremony for the boilers in a new factory, a completion ceremony for a construction works, or a launching ceremony for a new ship.

Holidays

Each Shinto shrine has several major festivals (matsuri) each year, including the Spring Festival (Haru Matsuri or Toshigoi-no-Matsuri), Autumn or Harvest Festival (Aki Matsuri, or Niiname-sai), an Annual Festival (Rei-sai), and the Divine Procession (Shinko-sai). The Divine Procession usually takes place on the day of the Annual Festival, and miniature shrines (mikoshi) carried on the shoulders are transported through the parish.

The order of rituals at a grand festival is usually as follows:

1. Purification rites (harae), commonly held at a corner of the shrine precincts before participants come into the shrine but sometimes held within the shrine before beginning a ceremony.
2. Adoration. The chief priest and all the congregation bow to the altar.
3. Opening of the door of the inner sanctuary (by the chief priest).
4. Presentation of food offerings. Rice, sake wine, rice cakes, fish, seaweed, vegetables, salt, water, etc., are offered but animal meat is not, because of the taboo on shedding blood in the sacred area. In the past cooked food was usually offered to kami, but nowadays uncooked food is more often used. In accordance with this change, the idea of entertaining kami changed to that of thanksgiving.
5. Prayer. The chief priest recites prayers (norito) modeled on ancient Shinto prayers. These prayers were compiled in the early 10th century and were based on the old belief that spoken words had spiritual potency.
6. Sacred music and dance.
7. General offering. Participants in the festival make symbolic offerings using little branches of the evergreen sacred tree to which strips of white paper are tied.
8. Taking offerings away.
9. Shutting the door of the inner sanctuary.
10. Final adoration.
11. Feast (naorai). Since World War II it has become popular to have a brief sermon or speech before the feast.

Most Shinto festivals are observed generally in accordance with the above order. On such occasions as the Annual Festival, various special rites may be held—for example, special water purification (misogi) and confinement in shrines for devotional purposes (o-komori), the procession of a sacred palanquin (o-miyuki) or of boats (funa matsuri), a ceremonial feast (toya matsuri), sumo wrestling, horseback riding (kurabe-uma), archery (matoi), a lion dance (shishi mai), and a rice-planting festival (o-taue matsuri).

References

1. "Shinto." Encyclopædia Britannica (Encyclopædia Britannica Premium Service, 2005).
2. "Shinto," "Shinto Literature," "Shinto Shrines." John R. Hinnels, ed., The Penguin Dictionary of Religions, 2nd ed. (Penguin Books, 1997).

Scientology Religion

Church of Scientology on Hollywood Boulevard, California. Photo: Kent Kanouse.

"In Scientology I have found several tools that I can apply to my daily life and they have allowed me to help myself and to help others to better the conditions of my life and of society." --Tom Cruise, actor and Scientologist (source)

The Church of Scientology was founded in 1954 by L. Ron Hubbard, a former science fiction writer. It is perhaps best known for its celebrity adherents, among them Tom Cruise, John Travolta and Leah Remini.

Whether Scientology is a "religion" is a matter of debate. Scientology presents itself as a "technology" that leads people to "true spiritual release and freedom." It does not emphasize particular beliefs about God or other traditional religious topics, yet it calls itself a "Church" and presents many of its teachings in spiritual and religious terms. Scientology is also highly controversial, with many regarding it as a dangerous cult or financial scam.

It is not the job of ReligionFacts to present our own opinion on these issues, but only to provide facts about the group's history, beliefs and practices. We have included Scientology on ReligionFacts simply because it meets our basic criteria of including teachings about the meaning of life and some set of rituals. The Scientology Links page leads to both critical and supportive arguments on the controversies of Scientology.


Source: http://www.religionfacts.com/scientology/index.htm

Rastafari

The Rastafari movement is a "messianic religio-political movement" 1 that began in the Jamaican slums in the 1920s and 30s. The most famous Rastafari is Bob Marley, whose reggae music gained the Jamaican movement international recognition.

There is significant variation within the Rastafari movement and no formal organization. Some Rastafarians see Rasta more as a way of life than a religion. But uniting the diverse movement is belief in the divinity and/or messiahship of Ethiopian Emperor Haile Selassie I, the influence of Jamaican culture, resistance of oppression, and pride in African heritage.

The Rastafarian lifestyle usually includes ritual use of marijuana, avoidance of alcohol, the wearing of one's hair in dreadlocks, and vegetarianism.

Emperor Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia, whose
birth name was Ras Tafari Makonnen.

Fast Facts

Date founded:

Generally said to be November 2, 1930, the year Emperor Hailie Selassie I (1892-1975) was crowned, but based in a movement of the 1920s.

Place founded:

Jamaica

Founder:

Marcus Garvey (1887-1940), a black Jamaican who taught in the 1920s and is considered a second John the Baptist.

Adherents:

About 1 million worldwide

Terminology

Followers of the Rastafari movement are known as Rastafarians, Rastafaris, Rastas, or Ras Tafarians. The movement is named for Ras Tafari Makonnen, who was crowned Emperor Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia in 1930.

Rastafaris dislike the term "Rastafarianism" because they reject the "isms and schisms" that characterize oppressive and corrupt white society. The movement is referred to as "the Rastafari movement," "Rasta," or "Rastafari."

History

Rastafari developed in the slums of Kingston, Jamaica, in the 1920s and 30s. In an environment of great poverty, depression, racism and class discrimination, the Rasta message of black pride, freedom from oppression, and the hope of return to the African homeland was gratefully received.

Marcus Garvey.

The Rastafarian movement began with the teachings of Marcus Garvey (1887-1940), a black Jamaican who led a "Back to Africa" movement. He taught that Africans are the true Israelites and have been exiled to Jamaica and other parts of the world as divine punishment.

Garvey encouraged pride in being black and worked to reverse the mindset of inferiority that centuries of enslavement had ingrained on the minds of blacks. Garvey is regarded as a second John the Baptist and famously prophesied in 1927, "Look to Africa, for there a king shall be crowned."

On November 2, 1930, Ras Tafari Makonnen was crowned emperor of Ethiopia (he ruled until 1974). At his coronation he took the name Haile Selassie, meaning "Might of the Trinity."

Selassie also took the titles, "Conquering Lion of the Tribe of Judah, Elect of God and King of the Kings of Ethiopia." These titles are traditionally given to Ethiopian kings and reflect the Old Testament emphasis of Ethiopian Christianity. For Rastafarians, Selassie's coronation was a clear fulfillment of Revelation 5:5, Ezekiel 28:25, and Marcus Garvey's prophecy.

Followers of Garvey's teachings believed that Selassie is the messiah that had been predicted, and that his coronation indicated the divine punishment was completed and the return to Africa would begin. Rastafarians named their movement for Ras Tafari and regarded the emperor as the physical presence of God (Jah) on earth.

Marcus Garvey himself, however, did not think highly of Selassie. He regarded him as an incompetent leader and in collusion with white oppressors after his defeat by the Italians and acceptance of British assistance to regain his throne. In 1937, Garvey wrote an editorial entitled "The Failure of Haile Selassie as Emperor."

Haile Selassie was an Ethiopian Orthodox Christian and he explicity denied his divine status as proclaimed in Jamaica. In a radio interview with Canada's CBC news in 1967, he said, "I have heard of that idea [that I am divine]. I also met certain Rastafarians. I told them clearly that I am a man, that I am mortal, and that I will be replaced by the oncoming generation, and that they should never make a mistake in assuming or pretending that a human being is emanated from a deity." (You can listen to Selassie's interview here.) This denial has not deterred Rastafarians from believing the emperor to be divine.

Emperor Haile Selassie I on the cover of Time magazine, November 3, 1930.

As an emperor, Haile Selassie worked to modernize Ethiopia and to steer it into the mainstream of African politics. He brought Ethiopia into the League of Nations and the United Nations and made Addis Ababa the major center for the Organization of African Unity. Selassie was named Time magazine's Person of the Year for 1935 and was the first black person to appear on the cover in 1930. He was the only black leader recognized by the rulers of Europe. 2

The Rastafarian movement first became visible in Jamaica in the 1930s, when peaceful communities were founded in the Kingston slums. During this time the Rastafarians developed a distinctive style of language, hairstyle, art and music.

Leonard Howell emerged as an early leader of the movement. He taught six fundamental Rastafarian principles: (1) hatred for the White race; (2) the complete superiority of the Black race; (3) revenge on Whites for their wickedness; (4) the negation, persecution, and humiliation of the government and legal bodies of Jamaica; (5) preparation to go back to Africa; and (6) acknowledging Emperor Haile Selassie as the Supreme Being and only ruler of Black people. Many of these principles were subsequently abandoned as the Rastafarian movement developed.

Howell was arrested by the Jamaican government in 1933 for his loyalty to the Ethiopian emperor over King George V. This may have contributed to the decision to keep Rastafarianism leaderless and independent.

Haile Selassie met with Rasta elders in Addis Ababa in the 1950s. In 1955, he offered 500 acres of his personal land to black people wishing to return to Africa. Around 2,200 blacks, mainly Rastafarians, moved to the land (in Shashemene) during the 1960s. But poverty, a lack of acceptance by the Ethiopian population and disputes with the govenment that overthrew Selassie has caused that population to dwindle. The current population is estimated at 250. 3

A major event in Rastafarian history was Haile Selassie's visit to Jamaica on April 21, 1966. Rita Marley, Bob Marley's wife, converted to the Rastafari faith after seeing Haile Selassie; she said she saw stigmata appear on him and was instantly convinced of his divinity. Further evidence of his divinity was seen in the fact that a serious drought ended with rain upon his arrival.

He told the Rastafarians that they should not seek to immigrate to Ethiopia until they had liberated the people of Jamaica, a command that came to be known as "liberation before repatriation." As well as its profound religious significance for Rastas, the event helped to legitimize the movement. April 21 is celebrated as a Rastafarian holiday.

Selassie was deposed in 1974 in a military coup and kept under house arrest until he was apparently killed by his captors in 1975. Many Rastas believed that his death was a hoax, and that he lives on in hiding until the Day of Judgment. Others say that he lives on through individual Rastafarians.

Album cover of Catch a Fire (1973).

One of the most important figures in the history of the Rastafari movement is the reggae artist Bob Marley (1945-81). The son of a white father and black mother, Marley lived in the Kingston slums of Jamaica. He recorded his first singles in 1962, had his first internation hit with The Wailers' album Catch A Fire in 1973. He had his first solo hit outside Jamaica with "No Woman, No Cry," in 1975.

Bob Marley became a Rastafari around 1966. He grew dreadlocks, adopted marijuana as a sacred sacrament, and is said to have begun every performance proclaiming the divinity of Jah Rastafari. His immense popularity as a musician brought both reggae and Rasta to international attention. Reggae music is intimately connected to Rastafari and its lyrics often speak of oppression, poverty, slavery, apartheid and human rights.

Marley was diagnosed with cancer in 1977 and he succumbed to the disease on May 11, 1981. Uprising (1980), Bob Marley's final studio album, is one of his most religious works, including the tracks "Redemption Song" and "Forever Loving Jah."

A few months before his death, Bob Marley was baptized into the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, a Christian faith that rejects the divinity of Haile Selassie. This has allowed both faiths to claim Marley as "their own."

Marley received a state funeral in Jamaica, which combined elements of Ethiopian Orthodoxy and Rastafari. He was buried in a crypt near his birthplace with his Gibson Les Paul guitar, a soccer ball, a cannabis bud, and a Bible.

In 1996, the Rastafari movement worldwide was given consultative status by the United Nations. Today, there are approximately 1 million Rastafarians worldwide. There are official branches in England, Canada, the Caribbean islands and America, and members in many more countries.

Texts

The sacred text of Rastafarians is the Holy Piby, the "Black Man's Bible." It was compiled by Robert Athlyi Rogers of Anguilla from 1913 to 1917 and published in 1924. 4 The Holy Piby is a version of the Christian Bible that has been altered to remove all the deliberate distortions that are believed to have been made by white leaders during its translation into English.

The Ethiopian national epic, the Kebra Negast, is also respected by Rastas, but less so than the Bible.

Beliefs

Rastafarians believe in the Judeo-Christian God, whom they call Jah. In general, Rastafarian beliefs are based in Judaism and Christianity, with an emphasis on Old Testament laws and prophecies and the Book of Revelation. Allegorical meaning is often sought in the Holy Piby.

Jah was manifested on earth as Jesus, who Rastas believe was black, and Emperor Haile Selassie. Selassie is referred to as His Imperial Majesty or H.I.M. (pronounced "him") and believed to still be alive - his death was a hoax and he lives in protection awaiting the Day of Judgment. Selassie is worshipped as divine. (Scriptural proof texts include Revelation 5:2-5, 17:14, 19:6, 22:16, Ezekiel 30, Psalm 9, 18, 68, 76, 87:4, Isaiah 9.) Rastafarians also honor Old Testament prophets like Moses and Elijah.

Rastafarians do not believe in an afterlife, 5 but instead look to Africa (called "Zion") as a heaven on earth. True Rastas are believed to be immortal, both physically and spiritually, a concept called "everliving."

An important Rastafarian concept is "I and I," which is said instead of "you and I." It emphasizes the oneness between humanity and God as well as the equality of all humans.

Another central concept is Babylon, which refers to the white power structure of Europe and the Americas. Rastas seek to resist Babylon, which once cruelly enslaved blacks and still continue to hold them down through poverty, illiteracy, inequality, and trickery. The greed and conceit of Babylon is contrasted with the humble simplicity and naturalness of the Rastas.

Practices

Rastafarians are perhaps best known for their religious use of marijuana, which grows plentifully in Jamaica. Rastas know it as ganja, the holy herb, Iley or callie, and believe it was given by God. Scriptural support is found especially in Psalm 104:14: "He causeth the grass for the cattle and herb for the service of man." Other texts interpreted to refer to cannibis include Genesis 3:18, Exodus 10:12, and Proverbs 15:17. In addition to ritual use, Rastas also use marijuana for medicinal purposes, applying it to a variety of ailments including colds. 5

Marijuana is used primarily during the two main Rastafari rituals: reasonings and nyabingi. The reasoning is an informal gathering at which a small group of Rastas smoke ganja and engage in discussion. The ritual begins when one person lights the pipe, or "chalice," and recites a short prayer while all other participants bow their heads. The pipe is then passed around the circle until all of the people have smoked. The reasoning ends when the participants depart one by one.

The nyabinghi, or binghi for short, is a dance held on Rasta holidays and special occasions (see below). These dances can last for several days and bring together hundreds of Rastafarians from all over Jamaica. They camp in tents on land owned by the host Rastas. Formal dancing takes place at night in a tabernacle especially set up for the occasion. The Rastas sing and dance until the early hours of the morning. In the daytime, they "rest and reason."6

There are several Rasta holidays, most of which center around events in the life of Emperor Haile Selassie. The most important celebrations are:

• November 2 - the coronation of Selassie
• January 6 - ceremonial birthday of Selassie
• April 21 - Selassie's visit to Jamaica
• July 23 - Selassie's personal birthday
• August 1 - emancipation from slavery
• August 17 - Marcus Garvey's birthday

Dreadlocks. Photo by kk+.

One of the most visible practices of Rastafarians is the wearing of one's hair in dreadlocks. Dreadlocks have several purposes and layers of meaning for Rastafarians, including:

• the biblical command not to cut one's hair (Leviticus 21:5)
• the appearance of the lion's mane, representing strength, Africa, Ethiopia, and the Lion of Judah
• naturalness and simplicity, which are associated with Africa
• the Rasta's roots in Africa

The other main Rasta symbol besides dreadlocks, are the colors of red, gold and green. Red stands for the triumphant church of the Rastas as well as the blood of the martyrs in the black struggle for liberation. Gold represents the wealth of their African homeland and green symbolizes Ethiopia's beauty and lush vegetation. Black is often also included, representing the color of the Africans. Another important symbol is the Lion of Judah, which represents Haile Selassie as the King of Kings, Africa, and strength.

The most observant Rastas follow a dietary law called Ital. Ital food is food which is completely natural (not canned and free of chemicals and preservatives) and eaten as raw as possible. Old Testament prohibitions against pork and shellfish are part of Ital; most Rastafarians are vegatarians or vegans. Coffee and milk are also rejected as unnatural.

Rastafarians reject the use of alcohol, since it is a fermented chemical that does not belong in the temple of the body and it makes a person stupid, thereby playing into the hands of white leaders. This is contrasted with the holy herb of marijuana, which is natural and believed by Rastas to open their mind and assist in reasoning.

There are three main sects or orders of Rastafari today. All agree on the basic principles of the divine status of Haile Selassie and the importance of black images of divinity. Many Rastafari do not belong to any sect and the movement as a whole is loosely defined and organized.

The Nyahbinghi Order (a.k.a. Theocratic Priesthood and Livity Order of Nyabinghi) is named for Queen Nyahbinghi of Uganda, who fought against colonialists in the 19th century. This is the oldest of the orders and it focuses mainly on Haile Selassie, Ethiopia, and the eventual return to Africa. It is overseen by an Assembly of Elders.

Bobo Shanti was founded by Prince Emanuel Charles Edwards in Jamaica in the 1950s. "Bobo" means black and "Shanti" refers to the Ashanti tribe in Ghana, from which this sect believes Jamaican slaves are descended. Members of Bobo Shanti are also known as Bobo Dreads.

In belief, Bobo Dreads are distinguished by their worship of Prince Emmanuel (in addition to Haile Selassie) as a reincarnation of Christ and embodiment of Jah; their emphasis on the return to Africa ("repatriation"); and their demands for monetary reimbursement for slavery.

Members of the Bobo Shanti order wear long robes and tightly wrapped turbans around their dreads. They adhere closely to the Jewish Law, including the observance of the Sabbath from sundown Friday to sundown Saturday and hygeine laws for menstruating women. They live separately from Jamaican society and other Rastafarians, growing their own produce and selling straw hats and brooms. They often carry brooms with them to symbolize their cleanliness.

The Twelve Tribes of Israel sect was founded in 1968 by Dr. Vernon "Prophet Gad" Carrington. It is the most liberal of the Rastafarian orders and members are free to worship in a church of their choosing. Each member of this sect belongs to one of the 12 Tribes (or Houses), which is determined by birth month and is represented by a color. 7

References & Sources

1. "Rastafarians." Oxford Concise Dictionary of World Religions
2. "Haile Selassie." Encyclopædia Britannica Premium Service (accessed August 2006).
3. "About H.I.M. Haile Selassie." Jamaicans.com
4. "The Holy Piby: The holy text of the Rastafari" - BobMarley.com
5. "Rasta's Symbolism" - The Afrocentric Experience
6. B. Chevannes, Rastafari and Other African-Caribbean Worldviews (Rutgers University Press, 1998), 17-18.
7. "The Rastafarian Orders/Sects." Jamaicans.com

New Thougt

New Thought is a mind-healing movement that originated in the 19th-century United States. It has no one creed, but its fundamental teaching is that spirit is more real and more powerful than matter and that the mind has the power to heal the body.

Major groups within the New Thought movement include the Unity Church, Church of Religious Science, and Divine Science.

Many, but all, New Thought groups are based in Christianity. New Thought is related to Christian Science both historically and philosophically, but Christian Science is more organized and doctrinal than the New Thought movement. In addition, New Thoughters do not reject modern medicine to the extent that Christian Scientists do.

Phineas Parkhurst Quimby (1802-66), the earliest founder of New Thought.

Emma Curtis Hopkins (1849–1925), one of the founders of New Thought.

Myrtle Fillmore (1845-1941), co-founder with her husband of the Unity Church.

Ernest Holmes (1887-1960), founder of
Religious Science.

History

The New Thought movement has roots in American Christianity as well as the metaphysical and romantic climate of the 19th century that came as a reaction against the religious skepticism of the previous century. This fruitful period saw the birth of New Thought, Christian Science, Transcendental Meditation, theosophy, and other related movements.

Phineas P. Quimby (1802–66) is usually cited as the founder or earliest proponent of New Thought. A native of Portland, Maine, Quimby was a clockmaker with little traditional education but an inquiring mind. After observing the power of the mind to heal through hypnosis, suggestion and the placebo effect, Quimby began to practice mesmerism (hypnotism) and develop the view that illness is a matter of the mind. He opened an office for mentally aided healing in Portland, Maine in 1859.

One of Quimby's students was Mary Baker Eddy, who went on to found the Christian Science movement. Eddy did not acknowledge any reliance on Quimby for her ideas, however. Warren F. Evans (1817–89), a Methodist and then a Swedenborgian minister, published a number of works exploring and systematizing Quimby's ideas, including Mental Cure (1869), Mental Medicine (1872), and Soul and Body (1876).

Julius Dresser (1838–93) and his son Horatio Dresser (1866–1954) are usually considered the founders of New Thought as a named movement. Julius was a popular lecturer who emphasized the theories of Quimby, and his son Horatio spread the elder Dresser's teachings and later edited The Quimby Manuscripts (1921).

Another figure considered a founder of New Thought is Emma Curtis Hopkins (1849-1925), a former student of Mary Baker Eddy. Inspired by the medieval mystic Joachim of Fiore, Hopkins viewed the Christian Trinity as three aspects of divinity, each playing a role in different historical epochs: God the Father, God the Son, and God the Mother-Spirit. Hopkins believed that the changing roles of women indicated the beginning of a new epoch—the reign of the Mother aspect of God. She wrote High Mysticism and Scientific Christian Mental Practice and founded the Emma Hopkins College of Metaphysical Science, where the vast majority of graduates were women.

Numerous churches and groups developed within the New Thought movement. One of the oldest is Unity or the Unity Church, founded by the married couple Myrtle and Charles Fillmore in 1891. Myrtle Fillmore was frequently ill throughout her life and became very ill in 1886. She did not expect to get better, but after Charles and Myrtle attended a class taught by Dr. Eugene B. Weeks, Myrtle began praying with a new perspective. She said, "I am a child of God, and therefore I do not inherit sickness."

Myrtle did get better. Charles was impressed by her recovery and began to study world religions, philosophy and the links between religion and science, and they both began to write about their beliefs and discoveries and hold meetings after church on Sundays. They published a magazine in 1889 and named the movement "Unity" in 1891. The Unity Church is the largest New Thought movement today, with about 75,000 members.

Divine Science was also founded in the late 19th century. It is based on the teachings of Emma Hopkins, who had been a student of Mary Baker Eddy (founder of Christian Science). When Nona L. Brooks became ill with a severe throat illness, she was persuaded by a friend, who had been healed by Emma Hopkins, to attend a class. After several sessions with Hopkins, Brooks suddenly found herself healed. Another of Hopkins' students, Melinda Cramer, who had had a similar experience, met with Nona Brooks and together they initiated Divine Science. Its membership today is estimated at 5,000.

Another major New Thought church, the United Church of Religious Science, was founded by Ernest Holmes in 1927. Holmes grew up in Maine and was the sort of person who never stopped asking questions. He never had any dramatic experiences, just an inquiring mind that became interested in the matters of the mind, healing and metaphysics. He was a great fan of Ralph Waldo Emerson, whose writings Holmes said "are like water to me." At school in Boston, several of his friends were Christian Scientists.

Holmes moved to Los Angeles where his brother had been living, and continued his reading and study. Like-minded friends began asking him to give talks, and he soon became a popular lecturer. The crowds grew, and the United Church of Religious Science was founded as a non-profit religious organization in 1927. Holmes had written Science of Mind, which remains the fundamental text of Religious Science, in 1926. In 1958, Holmes declared, "We have launched a Movement which, in the next 100 years, will be the great new religious impulsion of modern times." There are between 50,000 and 70,000 Religious Scientists today.

The primary text of most New Thought groups is the Christian Bible. "The Bible is Unity’s basic textbook. Scripture comes alive when it is understood as a clear and helpful guide for today’s experiences." "Divine Science's main textbook is the Bible, and it relates its lessons to your life and everyday experiences.

Beliefs

The two most commonly-held and fundamental beliefs in New Thought are: (1) the Divine is in all things and (2) the mind is much more real and powerful than matter.

Horatio W. Dresser, son of Annetta Seabury Dresser and Julius Dresser, summarized Quimby's ideas in this seven-element list:

1. The omnipresent Wisdom, the warm, loving Father of us all, Creator of all the universe, whose works are good, whose substance is an invisible reality.
2. The real man, whose life is eternal in the invisible kingdom of God, whose senses are spiritual and function independently of matter.
3. The visible world, which Dr. Quimby once characterized as "the shadow of Wisdom's amusements;" that is, nature is only the outward projection or manifestation of an inward activity far more real and enduring.
4. Spiritual matter, or fine interpenetrating substance, directly responsive to thought and subconsciously embodying in the flesh the fears, beliefs, hopes, errors, and joys of the mind.
5. Disease is due to false reasoning in regard to sensations, which man unwittingly develops by impressing wrong thoughts and mental pictures upon the subconscious spiritual matter.
6. As disease is due to false reasoning, so health is due to knowledge of the truth. To remove disease permanently, it is necessary to know the cause, the error which led to it. "The explanation is the cure."
7. To know the truth about life is therefore the sovereign remedy for all ills. This truth Jesus came to declare. Jesus knew how he cured and Dr. Quimby, without taking any credit to himself as a discoverer, believed that he understood and practiced the same great truth or science.

The Metaphysical Club of Boston, founded in 1895 as one of the first distinct New Thought organizations, wrote that the purpose of New Thought is

to promote interest in and the practice of a true philosophy of life and happiness; to show that through right thinking, one's loftiest ideals may be brought into present realization; and to advance intelligent and systematic treatment of disease by spiritual and mental methods.

In 1916, the International New Thought Alliance agreed upon this purpose statement:

To teach the Infinitude of the Supreme One; the Divinity of Man and his Infinite Possibilities through the creative power of constructive thinking and obedience to the voice of the indwelling Presence which is our source of Inspiration, Power, Health and Prosperity.

The Unity Church describes its basic teachings as follows:

1. God is the source and creator of all. There is no other enduring power. God is good and present everywhere.
   
2. We are spiritual beings, created in God’s image. The spirit of God lives within each person; therefore, all people are inherently good.
   
3. We create our life experiences through our way of thinking.
   
4. There is power in affirmative prayer, which we believe increases
   our connection to God.
   
5. Knowledge of these spiritual principles is not enough. We must live them.

Divine Science adheres to this "Statement of Being":

God is all, both visible and invisible.
One Presence, One Mind, One Power is all.
This One that is all is perfect life, perfect love, and perfect substance.
I am the individualized expression of God and ever one with this perfect life, perfect love, and perfect substance.

The beliefs of New Thought are based in a variety of religious and philosophical sources, including Platonism (with its emphasis on the realm of Ideas), Swedenborgianism (biblical interpretation based on the view that the material realm has spiritual causes and divine purposes), Hegelianism (a philosophy identifying the nervous organism as the meeting ground of the body and the mind); spiritual teachings of Eastern religions like Hinduism, and especially the Transcendentalism of the 19th-century American philosopher and poet Ralph Waldo Emerson.

Most New Thought groups identify themselves with Christianity, but not all do. Quimby regarded Jesus as a man who fully understood the workings of the body and mind, and was to be exemplified. The Unity movement describes itself as "positive, practical Christianity" that teaches "the effective, daily application of the principles of Truth taught and exemplified by Jesus Christ."

Both Unity and Divine Science affirm the divinity of Jesus, but also the divinity of all human beings. According to Divine Science, "Jesus expressed His divine potential and sought to show us how to express ours as well. Salvation is then the expanding understanding of one's innate divinity and perfectibility through living the life demonstrated by Jesus."

New Thoughters view sin as a "separation from God, the Good, in consciousness" (Unity). Salvation is something that can be attained in this life rather than the next, and is the overcoming of physicial and spiritual sickness and negative behavior. Heaven and hell are not places, but states of consciousness. Divine Science affirms the existence of eternal life, but adds that it begins in this life and that this life is the focus.

Practices

In many New Thought groups, prayer is the foundation practice for helping oneself and others. Lectures and study are also important for changing one's thinking from negative to positive.

The Unity Church practices spiritual baptism and communion. Baptism occurs as the "inflow of the Holy Spirit" and communion takes place by appropriating Christ's realization of the God-life through prayer and meditation in silence.

References & Sources

1. New Thought - Religious Movements Homepage
2. New Thought Movement Home Page - personal website
3. The Philosophy of New Thought - Affiliated New Thought Network
4. Frequently Asked Questions - Unity Online
5. United Church of Religious Science - official website
6. What is Divine Science? - personal website
7. Emma Curtis Hopkins - Wikipedia
8. Myrtle Fillmore - Wikipedia

Neopaganism Religion

Implements for a Neopagan handfasting (wedding) ceremony. Photo: sparktography.

"Paganism is the ancestral religion of the whole of humanity." -- The Pagan Federation "Neo-Paganism strives to revive authentic pantheons and rituals of ancient cultures, though often in deliberately eclectic and reconstructionist ways, and is characterized by a particularly contemplative and celebrative attitude." -- Encyclopedia Britannica

Neo-Paganism (also spelled Neopaganism and also known as Paganism) is an increasingly popular religious movement emphasizing ancient pagan religious traditions and reverence for nature. It takes a variety of forms known as "paths," which range from Wicca, which focuses on spells and goddess worship, to Hellenic Polytheism, which seeks to revive Greek paganism in an academically accurate form. The articles in this section explain both the common characteristics and diverse forms of Neopaganism.

Neopaganism Basics Glossary, Terminology, Timeline Neopagan Beliefs Neopagan Bookstore Neopagan Charts Five Elements of Nature, Wicca vs Christianity Neopagan Ethics

Neopagan Festivals Imbolc, Ostara Neopagan Links Neopagan Paths Asatru (Heathenry), Hellenic Polytheism, Kemetic Reconstructionism, Wicca Neopagan Store

Mormonism

Mormons believe Christ visited the Americas after his resurrection and preached to the natives.

"The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints is Christian but is neither Catholic nor Protestant. Rather, it is a restoration of the original church established by Jesus Christ." - LDS.org "Prophet and polygamist, mesmerizer and rabble-rouser, saint and sinner: Joseph Smith is arguably the most influential native-born figure in American religious history, and is almost certainly the most fascinating." - Newsweek, October 17, 2005

Mithraism Religion

Mithraism is a Roman mystery religion that flourished in the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD. Much is still unknown about this secretive sect, but scholars have generally been able to determine that it involved the worship of the ancient Persian god Mithras in caves, a communal meal and initiation through seven stages of an astrologically-themed hierarchy.

Mithraeum beneath San Clemente Church, Rome, Italy. Photo © Sacred Destinations



Relief of Mithras slaying a bull in the Roman-Germanic Museum, Cologne, Germany. Photo © Sacred Destinations



Relief of Mithras slaying a bull in the Yorkshire Museum, York, England.
Photo © Sacred Destinations

Evidence and Sources

Mithraism is known almost entirely from physical artifacts and dedicatory inscriptions. There are very few contemporary written sources, and most of those that survive are outsider perspectives. References to Mithraism can be found in the following texts:

• Plutarch, Life of Pompey 24
• Porphyry, On the Cave of the Nymphs 6, 15-16, 17-18, 24-25
• Porphyry, On Abstinence from Animal Foods 4.16
• Tertullian (c.200), On the Soldier's Crown 15
• Origen (240s), Against Celsus 6.22

The lack of good written sources on Mithraism is largely due to its status as a mystery religion, in which the meaning of its iconography and rituals was a secret known only to initiates. Insiders did not record details of their religion and outsiders did not know much about it. This obviously makes things difficult for historians, so there is much about Mithraism that is still not known.

History

The origins of Mithraism as a Roman cult are not fully understood. It clearly derives from ancient Persia in some way, but scholars are divided on whether the Roman cult is a westernized Persian religion or an essentially western religion with Persian trimmings.

The time period in which Mithraism flourished is better known, thanks to the archaeological evidence. The cult of Mithras appears suddenly in the 2nd century AD - hundreds of inscriptions begin appearing after 136 AD. It then died out with the rest of Greco-Roman paganism after the conversion of Constantine in the 4th century. Its sudden emergence in the Roman world has not been explained. According to the Encyclopaedia Britannica,

The most plausible hypothesis seems to be that Roman Mithraism was practically a new creation, wrought by a religious genius who may have lived as late as c. AD 100 and who gave the old traditional Persian ceremonies a new Platonic interpretation that enabled Mithraism to become acceptable to the Roman world.³

Archaeological finds indicate the extent of Mithraism included most of the Roman Empire, from Rome to Turkey to Britain. It was especially concentrated in Rome (35 Mithraic temples found) and its port of Ostia (15 temples). In total, over 400 archaeological find-spots related to Mithraism have been found, along with about 1,000 dedicatory inscriptions and 1,150 pieces of sculpture.

As in its Persian form, Roman Mithraism was a religion of loyalty, contracts and friendship between men, especially between officials and rulers. There are no known women followers of Mithraism. The cult was supported by several emperors, including Commodus (180-92), Septimius Severus (193–211), and Caracalla (211–17). As part of an effort at renewing the Roman empire, Diocletian dedicated an altar to Mithra in Carnuntum (on the Danube near Vienna) in 307, designating the god patron of their empire (fautori imperii sui).

Most followers of Mithraism were Roman soldiers, minor government employees like customs officials, imperial freedmen or slaves. It was also adopted by the pagan aristocracy of 4th-century Rome, as part of a conservative movement in opposition to the new Christian empire based in Constantinople.

Relationship with Christianity

Mithraism is frequently said to have been a great rival to early Christianity, especially in popular books written by non-specialists. According to most academic sources, however, the archaeological evidence does not support this claim.

Although it was widespread in terms of geography, Mithraism never had great numbers. (Christianity was not terribly large or influential in this period, either.) A few hundred temples of Mithras have been discovered across the Roman empire, but they are all very small. According to the Oxford Dictionary of Classical Myth and Religion:

Even if all were in service contemporaneously they would accommodate no more than 1 percent of the population - scarcely the great rival to Christianity that inflated views of the cult have sometimes made it.¹

Whether or not they were rivals, it is certainly possible that these two contemporary communities had some influence on each other. In at least one area, it is clear that Christianity adopted an aspect of Mithraism - the celebration of the birth of Christ on December 25, a tradition that began in the 4th century. A Christian writer admitted this in 320 AD, explaining:

We hold this day holy, not like the pagans because of the birth of the sun, but because of him who made it.²

December 25 was also the birthday of the more popular Roman god known as the "Unconquered Sun" (with whom Constantine identified himself before his conversion to Christianity), who was closely associated with Mithras.

In considering claims for Mithraism's influence on Christianity, it is important to remember that Mithraism was a very secretive, initiatory cult whose beliefs, practices and imagery were not known to the outside world. So it would not have been as easy for Christianity to borrow ideas from it as one might assume.

It is also worth noting that two faiths developing in the same area of the world at the same time are likely to have similar ideas and practices, regardless of their level of interaction. Ritual communal meals and the theme of sacrifice for salvation, for instance, were common not only to Mithraism and Christianity but much of the ancient world.

Beliefs and Iconography

Because of the lack of written sources, little is known about the beliefs of Mithraism. But they clearly centered on the god Mithras, who was based on the pre-Zoroastrian Persian god Mithra. Mithra was the most important god in Persian polytheism.

The Persian Mithras was a god of contracts (which is the literal meaning of his name) and all things associated with contracts: justice, friendship, cattle-herding and the sun (which beholds all things and thus can ensure the keeping of oaths). Zoroaster (6th century BC) specifically denounced the sacrifice of the bull, suggesting this was a ceremony of the ancient worshippers of Mithras.

In a Roman context, Mithras was a sun god (called sol invictus, "the invincible sun"), a "bull-slayer," "cattle-thief" and the savior of initiates of his cult. He was probably also the god of kings and of war (which explains the religion's popularity among soldiers).

Mithras Slaying the Bull

The image of Mithras killing a bull is central to nearly all Mithraic temples, and thus provides an important (but difficult) clue to the beliefs and concepts of Mithraism. Mithras is shown dressed like a Persian, including a distinctive cap. He stands astride a bull, plunging a dagger into its flank. The bull's tail becomes an ear of wheat at the end. The scene takes place in front of a cave.

Mithras is shown accompanied by a dog, snake, scorpion and raven, as well as two minor deities who are also dressed in Persian attire. Each carries a torch (one pointed up, one down) and their names are known from inscriptions: Cautes and Cautopates. Above the scene are images of Sol and Luna (Sun and Moon).

This intriguing iconography continues to fascinate and frustrate scholars. The act clearly represents a sacrifice, but for what purpose? Scholars have suggested that the sacrifice creates or ends the world (an idea found in Zoroastrian sources) or somehow saves the world or the initiates of the cult. In a Mithraic temple in Rome, an inscription reads, et nos servasti... sanguine fuso: "and who saved us with the shed blood." If this is the meaning of the bull-slaying image, it still remains unclear what "salvation" meant to followers of Mithras. One must be careful to avoid reading Christian connotations into a non-Christian context.

Another intepretation of the bull-killing scene is that it is an astrological allegory, since elements in the scene correspond to a group of constellations. According to this view, astrology was central to Mithraism and it provided the specifics of the soul's celestial journey (descent to earth and ascent to heaven).

The Banquet and Other Scenes

Besides this central icon, there are other episodes of Mithraic myth depicted as well. These include MiIthras' birth from a rock, the hunt and capture of the bull, and a banquet celebrated with Sol (who is shown as a separate being on monuments despite Mithras' own designation as a sun god). The divine meal is laid on the hide of the bull killed by Mithras. The banquet scene is sometimes shown on the reverse of the bull-killing reliefs, as an apparent result of the sacrificial act.

Temples and Practices

Followers of Mithraism were organized into small autonomous groups of initiates. They met for fellowship and worship in small temples of distinctive design they simply called "caves." ("Mithraea" and "Mithraic" are modern terms.) The cave-temple was an "image of the universe" and Porphyry noted that the archetypal Mithraeum was designed as a kind of microcosmic model.

Mithraic temples were sometimes actual caves or set against rock faces; otherwise they were made to imitate caves by the use of dim underground rooms or special vaulting and decoration. They were in all cases the antithesis of the classical temple, entirely lacking in exterior decoration and grandeur for public ritual.

One unvarying feature of Mithraic temples is a pair of platforms flanking a central aisle. These furnishings were used for a communal meal. Based on the reliefs that show a feast between Mithras and the sun god, this ritual meal was the human counterpart of the divine banquet.

Another central ritual was initiation into seven successive levels. Contemporary sources indicate this included ablutions (or baptism), purifications, chastisements, fetters and liberation, and ceremonial passwords. Frescoes at Capua (Italy) show the initiates blindfolded and kneeling. A simulated death and resurrection was probably part of the ceremony, as the ascent through the initiation grades was seen as prefiguring the ascent of the soul after death.

Mithraic initiates were ranked in a series of seven grades, each named and each under the protection of one of the planets:

1. Raven (Mercury)
2. Nymphus (Venus)
3. Soldier (Mars)
4. Lion (Jupiter)
5. Persian (Moon)
6. Heliodromus (Sun)
7. Father (Saturn)

These initiatory grades are known from frescoes in the Santa Prisca Mithraeum in Rome and the mosaic pavement of the Felicissimus Mithraeum in Ostia. But "Nymphus" (which translates to "male bride" or "bridgegroom") and "Heliodromus" are words of unclear meaning, and all the grades remain full of mystery.

The Christian author Tertullian sheds some light on intitiation to the third level, "Soldier," in a treatise about Christians refusing crowns in military service. He notes that a Soldier of Mithras, during his initiation in some gloomy cave, is presented with a crown at sword-point. He refuses it, saying that Mithras is his crown, and he never wears a crown after that.⁴

It is probable that each Mithraic temple and community was presided over by one or more Fathers. But the initiates of Mithraism, even in the highest ranks, were not professional priests. Their monument attest that they remained active members of the secular world.

References

1. "Mithras." Price, Simon and Emily Kearns, eds., The Oxford Dictionary of Classical Myth and Religion (Oxford UP, 2003), p. 354-55.
2. "Christmas." Oxford Concise Dictionary of World Religions.
3. Reinhold Merkelbach, "Mithraism." Encyclopædia Britannica (2007).
4. Tertullian (c.200), On the Soldier's Crown 15.